Vibratory enlightenment: Expand your Hindustani toolbox with raga-related concepts – demystified via analogies, etymologies, audio clips, illustrations, etc. Scroll around and see what you discover (or browse by topic).
• Hindustani Raga Index •
राग परिभाषाएं
• Tags | Megalist | Search •
—Raga Concepts—
Abhang | Abhog | Achal | Achop | Adbhuta | Ahata | Akaar | Alankar | Alap | Alpa | Anahata | Andolan | Ang | Anhemitonic | Antara | Anuvadi | Aochar | Aprachalit | Aroha | Asthan | Ati | Atritonal | Audav | Avirbhav | Avroh | Baaj | Bada khayal | Baithak | Balanced | Bamayna | Bandish | Bani | Begum | Bhajan | Bhakti | Bhava | Bhayanka | Bol | Braj Bhasha | Carnatic | Centred | Chal | Chalan | Chalan bheda | Chand | Chaturang | Chaya | Cheez | Chikari | Chota khayal | Constellation | Core form | Deergha | Desi | Detached | Dha (Dhaivat) | Dhatu | Dhrupad | Dhun | Dhwani | Dhyana | Drut | Durbal | Durbar | Equilateral | Ethnopimp | Filmi | Fragmented | Fundit | Ga (Gandhar) | Gamak | Ganda bandhan | Gat | Gayaki | Geet | Generator | Generic swara | Gharana | Ghazal | Graha bheda | Gurbani | Guru | Gurukul | Hasya | Hemitonic | Hindustani | Imperfect | Janya | Jati | Jatigaan | Jhalla | -ji | Jod | Jor | Jugalbandi | Kan | Karuna | Kathak | Kayda | Khali | Khalifa | Khatka | Khayal | Kirtan | Komal | Komal Pa | Lakshan | Lakshanagrantha | Laya | Layakari | Lehra | Light-classical | Lom-vilom | Ma (Madhyam) | Madhya | Mandra | Margi | Matra | Maximal | Meend | Melakarta | Merukhand | Mishra | Mohra | Mughal | Mukhda | Mukhya | Murchana | Murki | Nada Brahma | Natyasangeet | Natyashastra | Negative | Ni (Nishad) | Nomtom | Non-zero Sa | Nyas | Pa (Pancham) | Pakad | Palta | Pandit | Parampara | Paran | Pitch class | Poorvang | Prachalit | Prahar | Prakriti | Prayoga | Qawwali | Rabindrasangeet | Raga | Ragamalika | Raganga | Ragini | Ragmala | Rasa | Rasika | Raudra | Re (Rishab) | Rela | Reverse | Riyaz | Rupa | Sa (Shadja) | Sadhana | Sadra | Sakari | Sam | Samay | Samika | Sampurna | Samvadi | Sanchari | Sandhiprakash | Sangati | Sangeet | Sankirna | Sanskrit | Sapta swara | Saptak | Sargam | Sawal-jawab | Self-shadowing | Shabad | Shadav | Shagrid | Shantha | Shastra | Shishya | Shringara | Shuddha | Specific swara | Sruti | Sthayi | Surtar | Swara | Swara wheel | Taan | Taar | Tala | Tali | Tanpura | Tantrakari | Tappa | Tar | Tarana | Thaat | Theka | Thumri | Tihai | Tilted | Tirobhav | Tivra | Ucharana | Ustad | Uttarang | Vadi | Vakra | Varjit | Varna | Veera | Vibhag | Vibhatsa | Vidushi | Vikrit | Vilambit | Vishranti | Vistar | Vivadi
“Anybody should feel they can learn raga – but they must learn to speak the language of Hindustani music. A jazz musician must come to think of the ‘komal ga‘ rather than the ‘flat 3rd‘…” (Shahid Parvez)
Like everything on my site, the Raga Index will always remain 100% open-access and ad-free: however, anti-corporate musicology doesn’t pay the bills! I put as much into this project as time and finances allow – so, if you like these resources, you can:
• Support the site! •
…and hasten the project’s expansion…
—Riyaz-focused notations & bandish—
—Resurrecting rare and ancient ragas—
—Further melodic & geometric analysis—
—Ensuring that high-quality raga knowledge will remain open to all, at no cost: free from commercial motive!—
[Join the PATREON!]
• Search the Raga Index •
–Feedback & Contact–
• Abhang: A devotional song style focused on praising Lord Vishnu’s Vitthala incarnation (often depicted as a young boy, standing on a brick with arms akimbo). Translating from Marathi as ‘uninterrupted’, the form’s continuous melodic flow has roots in Maharashtra’s ancient Varkari poet-saints. Generally exuberant in nature and drut in laya, abhang – still wildly popular in the region – celebrate the communal spirits of worship and pilgrimage. Also see bhajan, thumri, ghazal, and light-classical.
• Abhog: The last of the four dhatus (stanzas) in a traditional Dhrupad composition (following the sthayi, antara, and sanchari). Translatable as ‘culmination’ or ‘satiation’, the abhog seeks to summarise the preceding melodic material – although is often omitted today. Also see chaturang.
• Achal: The two ‘immovable’ swaras: Sa and Pa (as opposed to the ‘variable’ chal: Re, Ga, Ma, Dha, & Ni). Also see non-zero Sa.
• Achop: Refers to rarely-heard ragas (‘minor, lesser’), often with the suggestion of being a complex or mixed form, associated with a particular tradition. The Jaipur-Atrauli khayal gharana is noted for its achop explorations, including sankirna (mixed-form) ragas such as Pat Bihag and Khat Todi. Read more in Mukund Lath’s liner notes to Bhimsen Joshi’s Rarely Heard Ragas album (featuring Bageshri Bahar, Hindolita, & Jaijaiwanti Nat). Also see jod & aprachalit.
• Adbhuta: Translatable as ‘awe’, ‘wonder’, or ‘amazement’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates adbhuta with Lord Brahma, as well as the colour yellow. Also see Adbhut Kalyan (‘Wondrous Kalyan’).
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Vijayanagara Narasimhan, 14th century)
• Ahata / anahata: A traditional Sanskrit conception of classifying ‘nada’ (sound vibration) into ‘struck’ and ‘unstruck’ varieties. ‘Ahata nada’ means ‘that which is audible to human ears’ (encompassing all natural sounds as well as intentional music) – whereas ‘anahata nada’ refers to ‘vibrations of the celestial realm’ (the foundational oscillations of creation). Also see nada brahma and string theory.
• Akaar: A vocal technique restricting the singer to elaboration of the syllables ‘Aah’ and ‘Kaa’, often used as part of riyaz. Also see sargam, tarana, merukhand, and bol.
• Alankar: A collective term for Hindustani and Carnatic melodic ornaments (Sanskrit: ‘jewel, decoration’), such as meend (long glides), gamak (oscillations), andolan (vibratos), murki (enclosures), and kan (grace notes). Raga’s melodic primacy brings extra prominence to these expressive details, with a dazzling array of techniques designed to capture and extend the expressive flexibility of the human voice (Sarngadeva’s Sangita Ratnakara taxonomised over 60 alankar way back in the 13th century). Today, alankar continue to vary wildly by to region, instrument, gharana, and artistic imagination (listen to a highlight reel here):
“A song with no alankara,
Is like a night with no moon,
A river devoid of water,
A vine without flower…”
(Bharatamuni’s Natyashastra, c.200 BCE)
Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Khatka | Murki | Kan
• Alap: The unpulsed and unaccompanied ‘free-time invocation’ section which opens a raga performance. Absent of percussion, the alap is primarily a space to ‘unfurl’ the raga’s essential phrases and swara relationships in unhurried fashion, giving the listener space to absorb its core sentiments with singular focus. A traditional alap may be structured as ‘mandra–madhya–taar’ (explorations in ‘low-middle-high’ octaves), with each of these ‘pitch zones’ being separated by a brief, optional mohra (pulsed motif). Many gurus consider the alap to be the ultimate test of whether a shishya has truly mastered a raga. Also see vistar and jor–jhalla (other alap sub-sections):
–Marwa Alap (Rupak Kulkarni)–
• Alpa: Describes the ‘insignificant’ or ‘weak’ rendering of a swara – or even that it should be skipped entirely in a particular context (not to be confused with ‘alap’). Also see kan, durbal, and vivadi.
• Anahata: See ‘Ahata / anahata’.
• Andolan: A class of melodic ornament involving ‘patient oscillations’ between neighbouring swaras – amounting to a ‘wide vibrato’ motion. Also see gamak (a faster, more dramatic ornament of similar shape) and meend (a wide bend, slide, or glide).
Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Khatka | Murki | Kan
• Ang: A general-use suffix indicating a ‘core element’ (literally: ‘limb’, ‘part’, ‘shape’). For example ‘gayaki-ang’ means ‘singing style’, and a ‘Kanada-ang’ raga will draw on the Kanada raganga‘s signature gmR motif.
• Anhemitonic: Ragas which contain no ‘adjacent swaras’ – i.e. the smallest interval spans at least two semitones (e.g. Malkauns: SgmdnS = jumps of ‘3>2>3>2>2’). See my anhemitonic raga category for more – as well as classifications for hemitonic (‘2-in-a-row’), cohemitonic (‘3-row’), co-cohemitonic (‘4-row’), & co-co-cohemitonic (‘5-row’).
• Antara: The second of four dhatus (stanzas) in a traditional Dhrupad composition (coming after the sthayi, and before the sanchari and abhog) – involving exploration of the upper swaras. Similarly used in khayal-derived music to denote the ‘higher countermelody’ which follows the opening sthayi line of the gat or bandish. Also see chaturang.
• Anuvadi: The swaras of ‘normal prominence’ in a raga – i.e. tones which are ‘neither highlighted nor downplayed’. Use of the term is somewhat infrequent, possibly due to the fact that different swaras are rarely given genuinely equal weightings in any expertly-expressed raga performance. Also see vadi (‘predominant swara’) samvadi (‘secondary swara’), vivadi (‘rare swaras’), and varjit (‘forbidden swaras’).
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Aochar: A brief ‘precursor melody’, sung just before the entry of percussive accompaniment into the bandish.
• Aprachalit: A rare or ‘uncommonly performed’ raga – such as Deen Todi, Hemshri, or Salagavarali. Also see the antonym of prachalit (‘common’), as well as jod, achop, and sankirna (other terms related to rarity and complexity) – as well as my ‘aprachalit‘ category.
• Aroha: The ‘ascending form’ of a raga – i.e. the phrases which guide its path during upwards motions. Defining an aroha depends on context: e.g. Bageshri’s ascent can be expressed in simple ‘swaras only’ format (SRgmDnS), or with more complex chalan-like detail (e.g. SnDnS; Sgm; gmD; gmnD; gmDnS). The number of aroha swaras virtually never exceeds that of the avroh (‘descending form’). Also see pakad – as well as my audav, shadav, and sampurna aroha categories.
• Asthai: See ‘sthayi’.
• Asthan: The ‘saptak region’ or ‘pitch-height’ of a melodic sequence (e.g. ‘mandra asthan’: focused primarily on the lower-octave range). Also see poorvang and uttarang.
• Ati: A general-use prefix for ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ – e.g. in relation to laya (e.g. ‘ati drut’=‘very fast’), or sruti tuning (e.g. ‘ati-komal’=‘very flat’).
• Audav: A term for ragas which include five generic swaras in their core form – e.g. Kalavati is audav throughout (S-G-P-D-n), as is Jog (S-gG-m-P-n: the double-Ga only counting as ‘Ga‘) – whereas Bhimpalasi is audav in aroha (S-g-m-P-n) and sampurna in avroh. Also see jati.
Surtar | Audav | Shadav | Sampurna
• Atritonal: Ragas which permit no tritones (i.e. no swara-pairs are separated by exactly 6 semitones, i.e. ‘half the octave’: a highly dissonant sangati). See my ‘atritonal‘ category – and, by contrast, see ‘detached’ (a measure of how much a raga avoids the 7-semitone perfect-5th sangati).
(e.g. Madhumad Sarang & Shankara)
Atritonal | Fragmented | Centred | Maximal | Self-shadowing | Komal Pa
• Avirbhav: The process of ‘making the core form of the raga visible’ (as opposed to tirobhav: ‘temporarily deviating from the original form’, e.g. by artfully drawing from nearby ragas). While inapplicable to many ragas (e.g. the modern Malkauns must stay within its five designated swaras), the ‘avirbhav-tirobhav’ concept can be vital to unlocking ‘mishra’ forms (e.g. Bhairavi offers the freedom to summon phrases from many different ragas) – plus other ways of showcasing ‘forms within forms’ (e.g. Kalavati’s SGPDn are ‘enclosed’ by Vachaspati’s SRGMPDn).
• Avroh: The ‘descending form’ of a raga – i.e. the phrases and principles which guide its path during downward motions. As with the aroha (‘ascent’), defining an avroh depends on context: e.g. Bageshri’s descent can be expressed in simple ‘swaras only’ format (SnDPmgRS), or with more extensive chalan-like detail (SnDm, mPDmg, mgRS, DnS). Ragas tend towards more complexity on the way down: thus, the number of aroha swaras almost never exceeds that of the avroh (see my categories for ‘equilateral‘, ‘balanced‘, ‘avroh+1‘, and ‘avroh+2‘ ragas). Also see pakad – as well as my audav, shadav, and sampurna avroh categories.
• Baaj: A ‘playing style’ of instrumental music (e.g. the ‘Benares baaj tabla’). Also used more generally for any instance of ‘playing’ (e.g. the sitar‘s ‘baaj tar’ is the main ‘playing string’, on which almost all melodic activity takes place). Also see gharana and bani.
• Bada khayal: The first of two main compositions in a Hindustani vocal performance, literally meaning ‘big khayal’. Typically sung in vilambit laya (slow tempo), the bada khayal comes after the alap, jor, and jhalla, and is usually followed by a faster chota khayal (‘small khayal’).
• Baithak: A less-formal private performance setting (‘house concert’) where artists typically sit in close proximity to the audience (e.g. in the host’s front room with friends and rasikas).
• Balanced: Ragas which ascend and descend using the same set of generic swaras, but not the same set of specific swaras – e.g. Jog (S-G-m-P-n-S<>S-n-P-m-Gg-S = ‘Sa–Ga–Ma–Pa–Ni’). See my ‘balanced’ category for examples – and also ‘equilateral‘ and ‘avroh+[n]‘ ragas.
(Jog: S-G-m-P-n-S <> S-n-P-m-Gg-S)
• Bandish: A lyrical composition in khayal vocal music, often with words in Braj Bhasha. Many bandish take a ‘sthayi–antara’ structure: with an initial melodic idea being reworked higher up after a few (often three) rotations. Also see gat (the instrumental counterpart) and dhatu (a four-stanza Dhrupad ancestor).
• Bamayna (bandish): A pun-like vocal device in which the syllables of the lyrics suggest at the sargam of the melody – e.g. ‘Suraso Rang’ as ‘Sa–Re–Sa, Re–Ga’, or ‘Nisadin Ram Naam’ as ‘Ni–Sa–Dha–Ni, Re–Ma, Ni–Ma’ (hear Pritam Bhattacharjee unpack another). [n.b. Some raga names also offer a similar translatability: e.g. Dagori as ‘Dha–Ga–Re’, all of which are contained in the raga – while plenty more can only be spelled using ‘outside tones’: e.g. Dhani as ‘Dha–Ni‘, or Madhumad Sarang as ‘Ma–Dha–Ma–Dha, Sa–Re–Ni–Ga’. Also check out Ravi Shankar’s Mohankauns, featuring a ‘Ga–Ni–Dha’ motif in tribute to Mohandes K…]
• Bani: A general term for ‘style’ or ‘performance lineage’ (also spelt ‘vani’: derived from the Sanskrit for ‘language’ or ‘doctrine’). Often used as an approximate equivalent for ‘gharana’ in Dhrupad, prominent surviving bani include the Dagarvani and Khandarbani.
• Begum: An honorific title for top-tier female artists of Muslim heritage (e.g. ‘Begum Parveen Sultana’) – somewhat equivalent to the male-specific term Ustad, as well as the Hindu Vidushi.
• Bhajan: A devotional song form traditionally associated with the Hindu Bhakti movement and strands of the Jain faith (from Sanskrit: ‘share, honour, adore’), with lyrical themes including ancient epics, saintly teachings, and divine love. While borrowing from raga, bhajans do not demand the same axiomatic precisions, giving artists greater freedom to deviate. Also see thumri and light-classical.
–Sai Raam Sumiran Karo (Parveen Sultana)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Bhakti: Translatable as ‘devotional service’, or ‘emotive spirituality’, bhakti is often said to be a ‘tenth rasa’, added sometime after the Natyashastra‘s original nine (below) – or perhaps a ‘meta-rasa’, woven into the fabric of all others. The Bhagavad Gita cites bhakti as core to moksha (liberation): reflected in the historical Bhakti tradition, a pan-Indian movement emphasising the union of the individual with specific deities.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Odisha Parvati, ~11th century)
• Bhava: A term loosely meaning ‘sentiment’, ‘evocation’, or ‘state of mind’, which has significant overlap with the concept of rasa (‘aesthetic flavour’). Today, the two terms can be used somewhat interchangeably – but traditional theory dictates that rasas emanate from bhavas: the Natyashastra lists eight principal bhavas amongst 49 in total, each paired with a corresponding rasa: rati (‘love‘), hasya (‘mirth‘), soka (‘sorrow‘), krodha (‘anger‘), utsaha (‘energy‘), bhaya (‘terror‘), jugupsa (‘disgust‘), & vismaya (‘astonishment‘).
• Bhayanka: Translatable as ‘fear’, ‘terror’, or ‘horror’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates bhayanka with Yama (the Hindu god of death and cosmic justice), as well as the colour black.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Hoyasaleshwara Dwarpal, ~12th century)
• Bol: A set of spoken syllables (bolna: ‘to speak’), usually referring to the ‘language of tabla’ – word-fragments designed to conceptually clarify the sounds of different drum strokes. Dayan (treble drum) syllables include ‘Na’ (partially muted rim-strike), ‘Te’ (closed middle-drum), and ‘Tun’ (full resonation) – and bayan (bass drum) sounds principally include ‘Ge’ (resonant bendable strike) and ‘Ka’ (non-resonant palm-slap). Compound strokes, formed by simultaneously striking both drums, include ‘Dha’ (=Na+Ge) and ‘Dhin’ (=Te+Ge). Watch some virtuosic recitation from Yogesh Samsi below, and also see my Brief Guide to Bols. [n.b. Many spelling variants circulate: in particular, the vowel-based components of each bol can vary wildly…]
–Tintal Solo (Yogesh Samsi)–
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Braj Bhasha: An archaic form of ‘literary Hindi’ commonly used for the lyrics of khayal compositions. Derived from pre-19th-century scholastic traditions of the Northwestern Brajbhoomi region, a descendent of the dialect still survives between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.
• Carnatic: A general term for the classical music traditions of South India, based around similar-yet-distinct conceptions of raga and tala (‘ragam/talam’). Carnatic music, which began to diverge from the Northern Hindustani lineage around the 13th century, tends to be performed in small ensembles – usually led by a vocalist, with melodic support from the violin and veena, and rhythm from hand drums such as the double-headed mridangam and ghatam clay pot. The music focuses on a shared history of melodic compositions, with lyrics often in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, or Sanskrit. The origins of the term – which may also refer to the region/state in Southwestern India – remain mysterious, with several theories offered (“according to Bishop Caldwell…[it is] derived from kar: ‘black’, and nadu: ‘country’, i.e. ‘the black country’, which refers to the black soil prevalent on the plateau of the Southern Deccan…Hattangadi Narayan Rao suggests a derivation from karu: ‘elevated’…also descriptive of the region’s geography”). Also see melakarta, as well as the ‘Carnatic origin’ category, and my Carnatic Primer article for Darbar – and watch a stellar ensemble performance below led by Aruna Sairam (‘Krishna’s Serpent Dance’: complete with ‘hissing’ percussive syllables):
–Kalinga Nartana Thillana (Aruna Sairam)–
• Centred: Ragas with a ‘constellation’ that would ‘balance at the swara wheel‘s centrepoint’ (i.e. its ‘centre of gravity’ is located at the exact centre of the 12-semitone wheel: the ‘middle of the clock’). All such ragas must also possess the property of mirror symmetry (essentially, ‘balancing along a centre line’) – although most symmetric ragas are not balanced (below: the ‘centred’ Bhairav vs. the ‘tilted’ Zeelaf, which, via the removal of Ni–re, becomes slanted towards tivra Ma). See my ‘centred‘ category, and also ‘maximal’ (ragas which spread their swaras into the largest possible constellation) – as well as the ‘balanced centrifuge problem’ faced by lab scientists.
(‘centred’ Bhairav vs. ’tilted’ Zeelaf)
Atritonal | Fragmented | Centred | Maximal | Self-shadowing | Komal Pa
• Chal: The five ‘variable’ swaras of the Hindustani system: i.e. Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni, which all offer both a shuddha (natural) and komal (lowered) variant – as well as Ma, which may be shuddha or tivra (raised). In contrast, Sa and Pa are both achal (fixed).
• Chalan: The ‘essential movement patterns’ of a raga (literally ‘walk’ or ‘gait’) – i.e. the specific melodic sequences which bring out its unique character, and differentiate it from nearby or congruent forms (see prakriti) – e.g. Bageshri‘s chalan could be written as ‘SnDnS; mgm; gmD; gmnD; gmDnS; SnDm, mPDmg, mgRS‘. Also see the closely-linked concept of pakad (arguably, the chalan functions something like a ‘structured sequence of pakad’).
• Chalan bheda: A term describing ‘differences in chalan formulation’, often used in reference to prakriti ragas (particularly refarding how to ensure they remain distinct while sharing the same core form). For example, Savani and Manjari Bihag can both be interpreted as ‘chalan bhedas’ arising from the parent Bihag.
• Chand: A playful rhythmic device involving the ‘stretching’ or ‘squeezing’ of the sthayi – via starting it on a different matra to normal, and then ‘time-warping’ it so as to conclude back at the cycle’s sam (e.g. beginning a 16-beat tintal melody on matra 5 rather than matra 1, but playing it 25% faster to compensate for the 4 ‘lost matras’ of the 16). Also see layakari.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Chaturang: A traditional performance format used in khayal vocal music, comprising four sections (‘chatur’=four, ‘anga’=limbs): the khayal (melodic imagination), tarana (rhythmic-syllablic recitation), sargam (improvised solmization), and tirvata (rhythmic culmination). Also see dhatu (a four-part Dhrupad structure).
• Chaya: Directly translates as ‘shade’, ‘shadow’, or ‘glimpse’ – typically used in reference to the act of ‘subtly recolouring’ a raga with ideas from outside its main form (e.g. Rahul Bhattacharya describes the importance of “a chaya…the faintest shadow of komal ni” in the raga of the same name (similarly, ‘Chayanat’ means ‘shadow of Nat’). Also see tirobhav, as well as the Jaipur-Atrauli concept of ‘shade ragas‘.
• Cheez: A general term for classical or light-classical song compositions in Hindustani music, often implying a vocal or lyrical inclination (e.g. Deepak Raja: “I asked [Vilayat Khan] to explain Sanjh Saravali to me. The Ustad described it as ‘a beautiful cheez which had composed itself’…”). Also see bandish and gat.
• Chikari: A set of ‘rhythm strings’ offered by instruments such as the sitar, sarod, and rudra veena, used to add percussive emphasis to melodic lines (functioning in some ways like a hybrid ‘drum–drone’). Chikari strikes tend to take on particular prominence in a raga’s jor and jhalla.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Chota khayal: The second of two main sections in a Hindustani vocal performance, literally meaning ‘small khayal’. Typically sung in madhya or drut laya, the chota khayal comes after a slower bada khayal (‘big khayal’) in the same raga.
• Constellation: The shape produced by ‘joining the dots of a raga’s swara wheel’ (akin to how stars form constellations) – presenting a concise and precise abstraction of its melodic geometries. Also see ‘maximal’ (ragas which spread their swaras into the largest possible constellation) and ‘centred’ (when a constellation would ‘balance at the wheel’s centrepoint’) – as well as ‘mirror’, ‘rotational’, and ‘palindromic’ symmetry.
(Kaushik Dhwani, Bhairav, Bilawal)
• Core form: The basic ‘swara-set summary’ of a raga – i.e. the full set of specific swaras which appear in its chalan or aroha–avroh sequences, ignoring vivadi, mishra, or otherwise uncommon/atypical features (e.g. the vivadi touches of komal ni in ragas such as Chayanat and Hameer would be excluded, as would the chromatic mishra tones in Pahadi and Pilu – whereas the Pa in Bageshri, though only played infrequently, would be included due to the chalan-relevancy of its mPDmg catchphrase). [n.b. For the sake of completeness, a few of the ‘core forms’ listed in this project end up slightly ‘overstating’ the swara set actually used in any specific performance: e.g. Asavari exists in both ‘komal re‘ and shuddha re‘ variants, while rarely including both: thus leaving its overall core form as ‘SrRgmPdnS‘.]
• Deergha: The elongation of a swara (literally ‘long-lived’) – i.e. extending its duration compared to those around it. The effect is particularly pronounced on even-sustained instruments such as the bansuri or sarangi. Also see nyas and vishranti.
• Desi / margi: An ancient designation between ‘desi sangeet‘ (‘regional music’: i.e. folk-rooted song forms) and ‘margi sangeet’ (‘music of the path’: i.e. guided by a formalised grammar) – loosely akin to the (already vague) Western ‘folk/classical’ distinction. Likely derived from the proto-raga abstractions of Vedic mantra chanting, the ‘desi/margi’ binary is now largely obsolete, replaced by a plethora of other stylistic descriptors. Read more from Sreenivas Rao – and also see light-classical, graha bheda, ahata/anahata, and Desh (‘countryside’: from the same root word).
• Detached: A term coined here to describe a specific swara where the positions 7 semitones above and below are both unoccupied, thus ‘detaching’ the swara from all sangatis of a Perfect 5th (e.g. komal re in Ahir Bhairav is ‘detached’, as komal dha (+7) and tivra Ma (-7) are both varjit). [n.b. Pa & shuddha ma can never fulfil this quality, since all ragas must contain their own Sa]. Also see ‘imperfect‘.
(‘detached’ komal re, e.g. Ahir Bhairav)
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Dha (Dhaivat): The sixth step of the sapta swara, offering both komal (lowered) and shuddha (natural) options. While these are somewhat equivalent to the Western b6 and ♮6 (=800 and 900 cents), the Hindustani Dha may also take nearby microtones (e.g. Bageshri’s shuddha Dha is often closer to 886 cents: a ‘pure’ major 3rd above the shuddha ma vadi). Plus, swaras are much more than just ‘notes’ (e.g. traditional scholarship associates Dha with divinity and celestial devotion, as well as linking its origins to the neighing of wild horses).
• Dha (Dhaivat): main page •
Komal dha: present
Komal dha: only
Komal dha: varjit
Komal dha: imperfect
Komal dha: detached
Shuddha Dha: present
Shuddha Dha: only
Shuddha Dha: varjit
Shuddha Dha: imperfect
Shuddha Dha: detached
Generic Dha: present
Generic Dha: varjit
Double Dha: present
Mirror: d–R | dD–rG | D—g
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Dhatu: The ‘stanzas’ of a Dhrupad composition. Traditionally, four are used – the sthayi, antara, sanchari, and abhog – although in recent eras, the last two of these are often dropped. Also see chaturang.
• Dhrupad: An older lineage of North Indian classical music, focused on longform elaboration of traditional ragas. Typically led by vocals or rudra veena, accompanied by a pakhawaj drum, Dhrupad (literally: ‘immovable pillar/verse’) places great emphasis on lyrical meaning, precise sruti intonation, and the full rituals of the alap–jor–jhalla format. Khayal began to emerge from Dhrupad around the 14th century, and was further catalysed by vocal innovators of the Gwalior gharana – while Dhrupad has itself continued to evolve in the years since. Also see bani, dhatu, nomtom, and my interview article with Dagarvani beenkar Bahauddin Dagar – one half of the Vardhini duet below with Pelva Naik:
–Vardhini (Dagarvani Dhrupad)–
• Dhun: A light-classical form centred on folk-derived instrumental melodies. Often set to frameworks which allow for chromatic flexibility (e.g. Pilu, Kafi, & Bhairavi), dhun may deviate from raga’s formal strictures, even drawing from filmi in recent times – with compositions often set to dadra or keherwa taal. Separately, ‘dhun’ also refers to an ancient form of spiritual chant.
–Pahadi Dhun (Hariprasad Chaurasia)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Dhwani: A Sanskrit-derived term for ‘sound’ or ‘resonance’. Thus features in several raga names: including Hansadhwani (‘sound of swans’) and Antardhwani (‘sound of the inner self’). Also see nada brahma, and a Hindu article on how dhwani is conceptualised by translators.
• Dhyana: A Hindu term for ‘meditation’ or ‘contemplation’ – originating in North India’s pre-Buddhist Sramanic (‘seeker’) movements, and appearing in the Upanishads to describe contemplation on the fundamental unity of self, soul, and universe. Also see sadhana and nada brahma.
• Drut: Indicates a fast laya (e.g. ‘drut tintal’ = fast 16-cycle). While no official bounds exist, drut tempos are typically of 160 bpm or above – although this varies depending on the tala at hand.
• Durbal: Refers to rendering a swara ‘weakly’ or ‘without emphasis’ (i.e. briefly, quietly, etc) – e.g. the shuddha Ni in Nat, or komal dha in Paraj.
• Durbar: A Persian term for ‘royal court’, associated with the lavish palaces of the 16th to 19th-century Mughal conquest of North India. Formerly famed as near-exclusive havens of top-tier classical music (notably under Emperors Akbar and Muhammad Shah), Mughal-era durbars still stand in cities such as Agra, Gwalior, Jaipur, and Baroda. Also see the name-derived Darbar and Darbari – and read a famous tale of Akbar and Tansen meeting the great mystic-musician Swami Haridas.
(‘Abu’l-Fazl presents the Akbarnama‘)
• Equilateral: Ragas which ascend and descend with the same set of specific swaras (e.g. Bhupali: SRGPDS<>SDPGRS). See my ‘equilateral’ category – as well as classifications for ‘balanced’ & ‘avroh+[n]’.
(Bhupali: S-R-G-P-D-S <> S-D-P-G-R-S)
• Ethnopimp: A term coined by melodic theorist Rajan Parrikar: “Ethnopimps call themselves ‘ethnomusicologists’ and are found loitering in Western universities…The racist term ‘ethnomusicology’ (when did you last hear the music of Beethoven studied under ‘ethnomusicology’?) refers to the field infested by these worthless parasites masquerading as academics. There are PhD theses, careers and tenure to be had for the asking, for the benevolent Lord expressly created ‘third-world’ cultures to be a font of rich pastureland for the vultures inhabiting the humanities departments in the West…Never mind that the titmouse wouldn’t recognize swara even if it bit off his (or her) buttcheeks…Incidentally, I myself had once devised a classification scheme for a ‘good’ ethnopimp, a ‘bad’ ethnopimp, an ‘unworthy’ ethnopimp, and a ‘plain’ pimp. The lines distinguishing them were found to be invisible to the naked eye”. As a white British musicologist, I may not wholeheartedly endorse all of Parrikar’s points – but, as someone who learned Hindustani music in India before immersing into ‘Western’ theory (and has never studied at or worked for any Western music institution), I certainly do echo many of his critiques around how academic musicology (mal)functions – particularly in terms of bringing actual insight to practitioners. [I’ll save further thoughts for something more in-depth in the future: but will add that Parrikar himself gave me some generous input around improving the design of this very project in its early stages. I make no claim to any direct endorsement, but neither should it be implied that Parrikar is averse to actively correcting the errors of Westerners…]. Also see ‘fundit’.
• Filmi: The vast, multilingual song canon arising from India’s popular film industries (not just Bollywood!). Typically recorded by specialist ‘playback’ singers (famously including stars such as Mohammed Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar), filmi continues to dominate the Indian charts, drawing from folk tunes, ragas of the North and South, and an increasingly diverse set of global ideas. Also see light-classical.
–Chaudhvin Ka Chand Ho (Mohammed Rafi)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Fragmented: Ragas where at least half the swaras are ‘detached’ (i.e. with no swaras 7 semitones above or below). Any such scales thus have a high degree of ‘fragmentation’, given the relative rarity of the emphatic perfect-5th sangati. It is geometrically impossible for scales with 8 or more swaras to possess this property (and the only possible ‘fragmented’ 7-swara shape is the ‘unfilled’ thaat #11/#22). See my ‘fragmented‘ category – and, by contrast, see ‘atritonal’.
(e.g. Rajeshwari [3/5] & Imratkauns [3/6])
Atritonal | Fragmented | Centred | Maximal | Self-shadowing | Komal Pa
• Fundit: A satirical term coined by Aneesh Pradhan as a “title/honorific awarded to an Indian musician chasing sponsorship for his concert” (also, for the sake of equality, offering ‘Fundita’ as a female equivalent: read more of Pradhan’s thoughts on matters of musical commercialisation here). Also see Pandit.
• Ga (Gandhar): The third step of the sapta swara, offering both komal (lowered) and shuddha (natural) options. While these are somewhat equivalent to the Western b3 and ♮3 (=300 and 400 cents), the Hindustani Ga may also take nearby microtones (e.g. Todi’s komal ga is often tuned ‘ati-komal’: extra-flat). Plus, swaras are much more than just ‘notes’ (e.g. traditional scholarship associates Ga with the sun’s rays, the bleating of goats, and the Gandharvas: Dharmic celestial beings revered for their abilities in music and dance).
• Ga (Gandhar): main page •
Komal ga: present
Komal ga: only
Komal ga: varjit
Komal ga: imperfect
Komal ga: detached
Shuddha Ga: present
Shuddha Ga: only
Shuddha Ga: varjit
Shuddha Ga: imperfect
Shuddha Ga: detached
Generic Ga: present
Generic Ga: varjit
Double Ga: present
Mirror: g–D | gG–Dn | G—n
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Gamak: A class of melodic ornament involving ‘vigorous movements between two neighbouring swaras’ (ITC: “with deliberate force [and] repeated in an oscillatory manner”). Sometimes used more generally to refer to any style of ‘vocalistic’ ornamentation. Also see alankar.
Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Khatka | Murki | Kan
• Ganda bandhan: A traditional ceremony in which a guru acknowledges their shishya as worthy of ‘carrying forward their legacy’, by awarding them with coloured threads (literally: ‘tying of the sacred thread’), to be worn as a bracelet or tied to their instrument. Read more in an article from Ally Adnan, and also see gurukul.
• Gat: A pre-composed instrumental melody, typically played with percussive accompaniment, designed to encapsulate the raga’s core phrases and movements. A traditional gat may have multiple ‘stanzas’, principally including a sthayi (main line) and an antara (higher countermelody) – both of which are used as improvisatory fuel in the raga’s following stages. Also see bandish (the vocal equivalent), as well as alap, jor, and jhalla (preceding sections of a raga).
–Shuddha Basant Gat (Kushal Das)–
• Gayaki: A general term for ‘singing style’, also used to describe ‘vocalistic’ renderings or ornamentations in instrumental music. Also see sangeet, khayal, and tantrakari.
• Geet: A general term for any song or vocal-based melodic composition. Also see sangeet, gayaki, and light-classical.
• Generator: Describes a specific interval, which, if ‘stacked’ on top of itself in sequence, will eventually produce the given raga’s scale form – e.g. Bhupali can be ‘generated’ by a stack of four 7-semitone jumps starting from Sa (S>P>R>D>G: SRGPDS), while adding another two generates Yaman (N>M). Most swara sets have no such ‘linear generator’.
(Bhupali: Generated via ‘4 * Perfect 5th‘)
• Generic swara: Refers to the ‘general position’ of a swara (i.e. disregarding its komal, shuddha, or tivra status: thus, any combination of ‘g/G’ just counts as ‘Ga’). The 7 generic swaras of the Hindustani system (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni) comprise 12 specific swaras (S, r, R, g, G, m, M, P, d, D, n, N): as each of the chal swaras offer two specific positions (rR, gG, mM, dD, nN), while Sa and Pa are achal (‘fixed’: i.e. their generic and specific positions cannot differ). Roughly akin to the Western concept of ‘generic/specific intervals’ (e.g. 3rds may be either major or minor). Also see sargam and sapta swara.
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Gharana: A ‘stylistic lineage’ in Hindustani classical music or dance, typically named for its region of origin (e.g. the ‘Benares tabla gharana’) or founding family (e.g. the ‘Imdadkhani sitar gharana’) – derived from ‘ghar’ (a general term for ‘house’ or ‘home’). Each gharana has its own distinct habits, techniques, and philosophies, transmitted and and reshaped through the generations via the guru-shishya parampara (e.g. vocalists of the Gwalior gharana favour more straightforward presentations, whereas those of the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana prefer more oblique approaches). Also see bani (a rough Dhrupad equivalent).
• Ghazal: An Islamic-derived song style, setting romantic poetry in Urdu or Persian into tightly-structured groups of rhyming couplets. While the term’s precise etymology remains unclear (with claimed links to archaic Arabic terms for ‘offering amorous gesture’, ‘a young, graceful doe’, or ‘to spin with thread’), the song form’s origins likely lie in 7th-century Arabia, before being brought to India by Sufi mystics some time around the 12th century. Today, ghazal turns up in Indian light-classical music, often drawing heavily from the world of raga – as well as remaining popular in various fusions across significant swathes of the Muslim world.
–Rafta Rafta Woh Meri (Mehdi Hassan)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Graha bheda: An ancient concept involving the construction of scales via rotational extrapolation from a limited group of ‘basic swaras’ (graha: ‘note-position’, bheda: ‘change’), to form a specific set of ‘basic modes’ (often given as 14). Such ideas played a vital role in the shared historical evolution of both North and South Indian raga – and in today’s Carnatic music, the term graha bhedam is used in a similar sense to the Northern murchana. Also see jatigaan, melakarta, and my full Murchanas article.
• Gurbani: See Kirtan.
• Guru: A teacher who, in best practice, seeks to ‘illuminate the path’ for their shishya (students) – guiding them through the principles of life as a musician as well as the art of raga (‘guru-shishya parampara’ refers to this teacher-student lineage). Traditionally, a guru will teach from a gurukul (‘house of learning’), upholding and adapting the ideas of their gharana (‘stylistic lineage’) amidst an ever-changing social and spiritual context – maintaining a lifelong bond with their students (see ganda bandhan ceremony). While a guru’s understanding of raga itself must be exemplary, they need not be an active performer (most notably Allaudin Khan of the Maihar gharana, along with his daughter Annapurna Devi: a reclusive surbahar virtuoso who nonetheless taught top-tier pioneers of other instruments, including bansuriya Hariprasad Chaurasia).
(Allaudin Khan & Annapurna Devi)
• Gurukul: A traditional ‘house of learning’ for Hindustani shishya – typically a dedicated music academy run by a guru (from Sanskrit kul: ‘domain, extended family’), which traditionally involves students living on-site and helping with day-to-day chores and tasks amidst long hours of riyaz. The term, which appears in the Upanishads (c.1000 BCE), can also apply more broadly to other institutions of artistic education (e.g. dance academies or monastic schools). Also see bani and gharana.
• Hasya: Translatable as ‘humour’, ‘laughter’, or ‘mirth’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates hasya with Lord Shiva, as well as the colour white.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Mansur Temple Buddha, ~8th century)
• Hemitonic: Ragas in which the largest ‘semitone cluster’ spans exactly two specific swara positions – i.e. it includes, at most, a run of two immediately-adjacent swaras (a ‘2-row’): e.g. Chandrakauns (SgmdNS) & Darbari (SRgmPdnS). See my categories for hemitonic, cohemitonic (‘3-row’), co-cohemitonic (‘4-row’), & co-co-cohemitonic (‘5-row’) – as well as ‘anhemitonic’ (no adjacent specific swaras).
• Hindustani: A general term for North India’s classical raga traditions (as differentiated from the ‘Carnatic’ lineages of the South). Many also consider the designation to include light-classical forms such as thumri and bhajan – and the word may be used more broadly in reference to anything ‘pertaining to North (or North-West) India’, notably including the Hindi-Urdu language group (although oddly, describing music as being ‘Hindustani’ can sometimes imply that it isn’t Dhrupad: e.g. to distinguish khayal-ang renditions). Derived from 16th-century Persian vocabulary: Hind (‘Hindu peoples’: itself derived from the Sanskrit sindhu, in reference to the Indus river, or ‘trembling water’) + stan (‘the land where one stands’: as in Pakistan, Afghanistan). Also see Mughal and Braj Bhasha.
• Imperfect: Describes a swara which, in a given raga, has no swara position 7 semitones above it. For example in Gangeshwari, the only ‘imperfect’ swara is the shuddha Ga (as the shuddha Ni position is varjit) – while Charukeshi has 3 (Re, Ga, dha). Due to the nature of the 12-semitone system (generated by stacking up twelve 7-semitone jumps), all ragas have at least one imperfect swara (although Sehera is the sole raga to only contain imperfect swaras). Shuddha ma is the only swara which cannot be imperfect (as all ragas must contain their own Sa). Also see ‘detached‘ (swaras with no available tone 7 semitones above or below).
(‘imperfect’ shuddha Ga, e.g. Gangeshwari)
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Janya: A term for ‘derived’ or ‘offspring’ ragas in Carnatic music (as opposed to ‘janaka’ parent ragas: e.g. Vijayanagari is a ‘janya’ of Dharmavati, the 59th melakarta scale). The word also finds occasional use in the North, despite differences in classification systems (see Thaat: Bhatkhande’s Base Scales).
• Jati: A loose term for ‘class’, ‘genus’, or ‘caste’ – as in, a classificatory grouping of ragas. Usually, it is used to describe the number of generic swaras present in a raga, either in total (surtar=4, audav=5, shadav=6, sampurna=7), or split by aroha–avroh (e.g. Bhimpalasi is ‘audav–sampurna jati’: with 5 swaras in ascent, and 7 in descent).
Surtar | Audav | Shadav | Sampurna
• Jatigaan: An ancient precursor to the Hindustani and Carnatic raga systems, involving extrapolation from a defined set of folk-derived melodic sequences (from a similar derivation to jati) – discussed in the Natyashastra and other Sanskrit works. Also see graha bheda.
• Jhalla: The fast-paced ‘conclusion segments’ of a composition – usually describing either a steadily-pulsed unaccompanied section which follows the jor in closing an alap, or the dense, rhythmic passages at very end of a raga performance. Both settings of the jhalla tend towards steady, sequential movements, with long, unbroken streams of swaras accompanied by tight-looping right-hand techniques involving percussive strokes on the chikari (evident in Roopa Panesar’s jhalla below).
–Puriya Jhalla (Roopa Panesar)–
• -ji: An informal honorific suffix, often added to the titles or forenames of musicians by those who know them (e.g. ‘guru-ji, Zakir-ji’).
• Jod: A term indicating a ‘joining’ of two or more ragas – for example Jaun Bhairav is a combination of Jaunpuri and Bhairav. Also see achop and sankirna.
• Jor: A gently-pulsed section of the alap, serving as the first introduction of extended rhythmic flow in a traditional raga performance. Literally meaning ‘join’ (as in, ‘joining the alap to the gat’: sometimes spelt ‘jod’, reserved in this project to refer to ‘joined‘ ragas), the jor follows the unpulsed ‘swara introduction’ passages, and leads into the more rigid rhythms of the jhalla. Jor melodies, which are unaccompanied, tend towards steady, patient elaborations of the raga’s core sangati, often set in regular grooves – although performers will also ‘break the flow’ with judicious pauses and intricate ornaments.
–Jog Jor (Rakesh Chaurasia)–
• Jugalbandi: A ‘duet’ performance, in which both melodic soloists play a relatively equal part. Often employed for North–South collaborations (see below) – while another variant is the ‘Jasrangi jugalbandi’: an ingenious way of singing two different ragas simultaneously via ‘murchana-matching’ scales between a male and female voice (see my Murchanas article for a rundown of this intriguing zone).
–Vachaspati (Kushal Das)–
• Kan: A class of melodic ornament involving brief ‘grace notes’ played just before or after a more prominent swara – often transcribed with brackets, e.g. (g)RS. Also see alankar.
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Karuna: Translatable as ‘compassion’, ‘melancholy’, or ‘mercy’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates karuna with Yama (the Hindu god of death and cosmic justice), as well as the colour grey.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Khajaraho Mother & Child, ~12th century)
• Kathak: A classical dance form derived from the physical storytelling traditions of North India, characterised by athletic spins, intricate hand gestures, and bursts of dense footwork interspersed by moments of calm. Often accompanied by melodies drawn from the world of Hindustani raga, the tradition’s rhythmic routines share some of the tabla’s mathematical sophistication, bringing a playful combination of mental and physical calculation. Read more in my Darbar interview with global kathak innovator Akram Khan – and watch some fiery choreography below.
–Kathak (Dheerendra Tiwari)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Kayda: A ‘rule-bound’ framework for guiding tabla improvisation (Arabic: ‘to cage or bind’), based around the systematic expansion of specific bol phrases. The term can also refer to the ‘initial bols’ used, which are manipulated using a complex array of conceptual tools to form paltas (thematic variations), usually ending in a tihai.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Khali: The unstressed (‘empty’) vibhags of a tala cycle: left absent of bass-resonant bayan tabla strokes, and signified by a ‘wave’ of the hand (rather than the stressed ‘tali’ portions: indicated with a clap). For example tintal’s 3rd of 4 vibhags is khali (4-4-4-4 = ‘clap, clap, wave, clap’), as is rupak’s 1st of 3 vibhags (3-2-2 as ‘wave, clap, clap’). These hand signals will often be visible amongst the audience of a tabla recital.
(Tintal: sam, matras, vibhag, tali, khali)
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Khalifa: An Arabic-derived term meaning ‘leader’, ‘ruler’, or ‘successor’ – which, in the context of Hindustani raga, indicates the ‘head musician of a gharana’ (e.g. I heard Zakir Hussain describe Sanju Sahai as “the khalifa of Benares tabla” during the pair’s 2022 London show).
• Khatka: A class of legato-style melodic ornament, involving the rendering of several swaras from only one ‘stroke’ – e.g. playing the three-swara sequence P(Sn) by only plucking the string once (on Pa), reaching Sa & ni via meend. Also see kan.
Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Khatka | Murki | Kan
• Khayal: The predominant modern form of Hindustani classical vocal music – based around detailed elaboration of melodic raga compositions, often with poetic lyrics in Braj Bhasha. Translating from Persian as ‘imagination’ or ‘creativity’, khayal began to emerge from Dhrupad some time around the 14th century, likely influenced by early qawwal song forms, and had largely eclipsed its Dhrupad in the royal courts by the beginning of the 19th century. Read more in my Khayal 101 article (“khayal is about finding freedom through the voice, showcasing dramatic, elastic improvisations and high-register acrobatics. While the music can invoke contemplation, it involves more worldly impulses too, with a longstanding penchant for showmanship, competition, and flamboyance…”). Witness a lively khayal duet from Benares duo Rajan & Sajan Mishra below – and also see bada & chota khayal, as well as bandish, & chaturang.
–Megh (Rajan & Sajan Mishra)–
• Kirtan: Terms such as ‘Gurbani Kirtan’ and ‘Shabad Kirtan’ refer to the rich devotional traditions of Sikh music. Kirtan (Sanskrit: ‘narrating, describing’) centres around singing songs to God, often with weaving melodies and driving tabla rhythms. The music mirrors raga concepts, drawing from recent Hindustani developments as well as older Dhrupad-infused ideas: prominent scriptures describe the specifics of 31 ragas and 17 talas, and many Sikh saints set their poetry to music (notably in the Guru Granth Sahib). While modern artists often add guitars, drums, and keyboards, Kirtan’s traditional vocal-tabla–harmonium core is still central to gurdwaras across the globe.
–Kar Kirpa Tere Gun Gavan (Bhai Satinderbir Singh)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Komal: A ‘lowered’ or ‘flattened’ version of a swara (literally ‘soft’) – either in the sense of its overall scale position (e.g. komal ga is, broadly speaking, a semitone lower than shuddha Ga), or its sruti inflection (e.g. ‘ati-komal dha‘ indicates an ‘extra-flat’ variant). Also see shuddha (‘natural’) and tivra (‘raised’) – as well as my ‘all-komal‘ category.
• Komal Pa: Ragas with ‘double Ma and varjit Pa’: posited by some scholars (notably Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy) as leaving the tivra Ma to function more like a ‘komal Pa’. While controversial, supporters point to its inclusion in the ancient ‘Dhaivati jati‘ scale described in the Natyashastra. See my ‘komal Pa’ raga category for examples – notably including Lalit (SrGmMdNS).
(‘double Ma & varjit Pa‘, e.g. Lalit)
Atritonal | Fragmented | Centred | Maximal | Self-shadowing | Komal Pa
• Lakshan: Rules, principles, and ‘summary concepts’ concerning how to elaborate a raga (e.g. the ‘raga-lakshan’ of Kalavati will describe its distinctive behaviours). Also see lakshanagrantha.
• Lakshanagrantha: A scholarly text concerning the technical and aesthetic principles of raga (lakshan = ‘set of rules’, grantha = ‘scholarly writings’). Prominent examples include the Natyashastra (Bharatamuni, c.200 BCE), the Sangita Ratnakara (Sarangadeva, c.13th century), and the Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati (Bhatkhande, early 20th century).
(‘Texts of Indian Dance’, Sreenivas Rao)
• Laya: The ‘tempo’ or ‘matra-rate’ of a tala, usually indicated as either vilambit, madhya, or drut (slow, medium, fast).
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Layakari: A ‘rhythmic interplay’ section (laya = ‘tempo’, kari = ‘play’), often involving the ‘time-stretching’ of key sthayi phrases – i.e. jumping the raga’s core melodies between different ‘levels of groove’ (e.g. playing the sthayi three times slower, with the tabla maintaining the ‘normal’ laya underneath, meaning they both resolve to a later sam). Also see tantrakari – and hear some divine layakari in action below.
–Yaman Layakari (Shahid Parvez)–
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Lehra: A ‘looped melody’ made up of the raga’s most essential phrases (often the sthayi of the gat) played by the lead instrument during a percussion solo. The lehra anchors the structural flow of the tala cycle, allowing the tabla to deviate and resolve with more freedom and coherence. Hear how Ramesh Mishra’s Kalavati sarangi lehra adds to a tintal tabla solo (S, S nDPG, PDnD, nDPGS, GP SnDP).
• Light-classical: Refers to a broad, loosely-delimited collection of genres and song styles which draw from the vocabulary and concepts of raga (both Hindustani and Carnatic), without being confined to its strict axioms. Prominent light-classical (or ‘semi-classical’) forms – which often draw from folk tunes and devotional poetry – include thumri, bhajan, ghazal, tappa, & Rabindrasangeet (see list below).
–Manj Khamaj Bhajan (Kedar Bodas)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Lom-vilom: A two-part rhythmic structure, where the second portion is a ‘mirror image’ of the first – forming a ‘palindromic‘ whole (i.e. reading the same forwards and backwards). Read more from Chandrakantha – and also see palta, paran, kayda, & tihai.
• Ma (Madhyam): The fourth step of the sapta swara, offering both shuddha (natural) and tivra (raised) options. While these are somewhat equivalent to the Western ♮4 and #4 (=500 and 600 cents), the Hindustani Ma may also be set to a microtone between these points (plus, swaras are far more than just ‘notes’). Madhyam (meaning ‘medium’ or ‘central’: i.e. the 4th of 7 swaras) is traditionally associated with moonlight, as well as the call of the heron. It also underpins the sonic geometry of several instruments: e.g. the sitar’s main playing string is tuned to ma (meaning Sa lies on the 7th fret), and ‘Sa-ma’ is the second most common tanpura tuning (as ma-Sa-Sa-Sa).
• Ma (Madhyam): main page •
Shuddha ma: present
Shuddha ma: only
Shuddha ma: varjit
Shuddha ma: imperfect
Shuddha ma: detached
Tivra Ma: present
Tivra Ma: only
Tivra Ma: varjit
Tivra Ma: imperfect
Tivra Ma: detached
Generic Ma: present
Generic Ma: varjit
Double Ma: present
Mirror: m–N | mM–nS | M—S
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Madhya: A general term indicating ‘medium’, ‘middle’, or ‘central’ (e.g. ‘madhya laya ektal‘ = ‘medium-tempo 12-cycle’: often between 60-160 bpm). Also gives name to the fourth ascending swara (see Ma).
• Mandra: Indicates ‘low’ or ‘deep’ in register (e.g. ‘mandra saptak’ = bass octave) – typically used in relation to the relative pitch-range of the instrument in question, rather than in terms of ‘absolute’ frequencies.
• Margi: See ‘Desi / margi’.
• Matra: An individual ‘beat unit’ of a tala cycle – in other words, one ‘pulse count’ of the rhythmic flow (e.g. tintal, below, has 16 matras). While always ‘felt’, a matra need not involve audible sound (e.g. deepchandi’s first three vibhags end with an ‘empty matra’: i.e. the 3rd/7th/10th beats of the overall ‘3-4-3-4’). Learn more in my Tala Index.
(Tintal: sam, matras, vibhag, tali, khali)
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Maximal: Ragas with a ‘constellation’ that fills the largest possible area within the swara wheel (i.e. its swaras are ‘spread out’: like cricket fielders distributed evenly around the boundary rope). For example: the full 12-note chromatic scale would fill the entire available space, and any 2-note scale would merely draw a ‘line’ with zero area – with all other swara-sets falling somewhere between these two extremes. ‘Maximal’ ragas are those which draw the ‘largest possible shape’ from the number of swaras they have available: indicating that their tones are ‘maximally spread out’ (i.e. a ‘narrow distribution’ of adjacent intervals: compare the ‘maximal’ Megh‘s ‘2-3-2-3-2‘ to the ‘smaller’ Kaushik Dhwani’s ‘4-1-4-2-1’). See my ‘maximal‘ raga category (comprising about 1/3rd of the database), and also ‘centred’ (when the constellation ‘balances at the wheel’s centrepoint’).
(‘maximal’ Malkauns vs. ‘smaller’ Kaushik Dhwani)
Atritonal | Fragmented | Centred | Maximal | Self-shadowing | Komal Pa
• Meend: A class of ornaments involving ‘smooth glides’ between swaras. Precise shapes vary greatly according to raga, artist, instrument, and gharana – e.g. a sitar plays meend via bends, and a chaturangi slides along the strings with a cylindrical metal bar (while a vocalist must reshape their own larynx). Also see alankar.
Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Khatka | Murki | Kan
• Melakarta: The main melodic classification system of Carnatic raga, which taxonomises 72 different 7-swara scales in ‘decision tree’ fashion (below) – separating them by interval combinations and cultural signifiers to form a dense yet logical ‘wheel’ structure. Discussed in depth (along with a 32-scale Hindustani equivalent) in my full article Bhatkhande’s Base Scales & Beyond.
(The Carnatic Melakarta: 72 ‘Janaka’ Ragas)
• Merukhand: A form of melodic sequencing used in Hindustani riyaz, involving the calculation of ‘unique sequences’ from a given set of swaras (literally, ‘divisional analysis’: sometimes written as ‘khandmeru’). Calculated via the ‘factorial’ of the swara set (i.e. 3 swaras = 3*2*1 = 6 unique sequences) – leading to rapid increases in complexity:
—3 swaras: 3*2*1= 6—
—4 swaras: 4*3*2*1= 24—
—5 swaras: 5*24= 120—
—6 swaras: 6*120= 720—
—7 swaras: 7*720= 5040—
—8 swaras: 40,320—
—9 swaras: 362,880—
—10 swaras: 3,628,800—
—11 swaras: 39,916,800—
—12 swaras: 479,001,600—
Thus, the system is typically limited to the 7 sapta swara (as per vocalist Amir Khan, “My father made me practise the 5040 taan patterns, which are possible through permutation and combination of the 7 notes…for 22 years…Even when you sing in akaar, you should be clear as to what note you are singing…I [later] realised that, out of these 5040 patterns, only 168 are useful. However, due to this practice, I can do any number of variations…”). Also see melakarta – and my full Merukhand rundown.
(Merukhand: swaras vs. sequences)
• Mishra: A general term indicating some ‘mixed’ quality, usually describing ragas which allow for significant use of swaras outside their core form (e.g. the folk-infused Mishra Kafi adds chromatics to ‘plain’ Kafi’s SRgmPDnS – and most performances of Bhairavi are ‘mishra’ to some degree). Also the surname of my own gurus! See my ‘mishra‘ category.
• Mohra: A short, gently-pulsed ‘separation phrase’ used to distinguish different sections of the alap – which are typically split by saptak (e.g. ‘mandra > mohra > madhya > mohra > taar > mohra > jor…’).
• Mughal: Refers to the Muslim conquests of North India (and particularly its lineage of Turkic-Mongol leaders: the ‘Mughal Emperors’), spanning most of the 16th to 18th centuries. The resulting infusion of Islamic cultural ideas into India’s ancient-rooted Hindu traditions formed the catalyst for Hindustani raga‘s modern development (as well as hastening its differentiation from Carnatic music: South India having been under less extensive colonial control). Also see durbar (‘royal court’), as well as the various raga tales which are set there – such as the origin myths of Deepak, Megh, and Bilaskhani Todi (all closely associated with Tansen, the legendary composer of Akbar the Great’s 16th-century Agra court).
(Agra’s Red Fort Palace)
• Mukhda: The main (often first) line of a composition (somewhere between a chorus and a catchphrase). Literally meaning ‘face’, the mukhda’s melodic material serves as fuel for improvisation, guiding the artist within the raga’s form. Also see sthayi.
• Mukhya: A raga’s ‘essential’ swara combinations, required for an effective rendering (e.g. Bageshri’s ‘mukhya-ang’ includes ‘SnD; Sgm; gmD; gmnD; gmDnS; SnDm; mPdmg; gmRS’). Also see pakad, chalan, & core form.
• Murchana: Describes concepts of ‘melodic rotation’ in Hindustani music – based on relocating the Sa within the same interval pattern (somewhat akin to the Western idea of ‘modality’). For example, if you treat Bhupali‘s Re as the ‘new Sa’, Megh is produced (below): as both are rotations of the same ‘round-the-octave’ sequence (thus, Megh can be produced by relocating Bhupali’s Sa to the Pa). Similar rotational properties are also true for their ‘murchana-set’ neighbours Malkauns, Durga, and Dhani. The term can similarly refer to riyaz exercises which move a set pattern ‘through the scale’, starting it on each sequential swara (e.g. SRmG, RGPm, GmdP…). Also see graha bheda, Jasrangi jugalbandi, and Parameshwari (a murchana-derived invention of Ravi Shankar) – as well as my full Murchanas page.
(Bhupali‘s ‘Re-murchana’ = Megh)
• Murki: A class of tonal embellishment involving the rapid ‘enclosure’ of a swara with those immediately above and below (e.g. nSRS or mGmP) – often used in taans and drut passages.
–Murki Visualisations (MusicRiyaaz)–
Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Khatka | Murki | Kan
• Nada brahma: Derived from a Sanskrit phrase loosely translatable as ‘universal vibration’ or ‘god as sound’ (more literally: ‘life-fire manifested by the supreme being’). A fundamental tenet of Hindu metaphysics, it refers to the belief that sound vibration is the fundamental essence of all creation – and the primary route by which to experience the divine.
• Natyasangeet: The ‘dramatic music’ or ‘theatrical song’ traditions of Maharashtra, which (like other ‘light-classical’ forms such as bhajan and ghazal) draw from the world of Hindustani raga without being beholden to its precise bounds. Performances may mix devotional lyricism, ecstatic fire-dance, incantations to Shiva, and more. While relatively young – having emerged around the 1880s – Natyasangeet has already exerted a hidden global impact via its influence on the early Indian film industry.
–Karin Yadumani Sadana (Bhimsen Joshi)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Natyashastra: A highly influential Sanskrit aesthetic treatise, published by Bharata Muni some time between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E., elaborating on the principles of effective performance in music and dance. Arranged into over 6000 verses, the Natyashastra goes into exacting didactic depth regarding the ‘correct’ methods of performing Indian classical arts (p.370: “The ‘Dima’ should consist of four acts only. It should contain all the rasas except the erotic and the comic, and a plot with exciting sentiments and various states. It is also to include incidents such as earthquakes, meteor falls, an eclipse of the sun or moon, battle, or personal combat…the Dima should abound in deceipt and jugglary…and is to include 16 characters: which may be Gods, Nagas, Raksasas, Yaksas, and Pisacas”…). Among the oldest surviving lakshanagranthas, it lays out many of Indian classical music’s existing foundational principles: discussing raga, rasa, bhava, tala, and much more besides (p.344: “Addressing wife in lovemaking: the wife may be accosted as ‘my dear’ by all except the King – but priests’ and merchants’ wives are always addressed as ‘noble lady’…”).
(Shiva as ‘Divine Cosmic Dancer’)
• Negative: The ‘unused swara set’ of a raga – i.e. the scale form produced by the swara positions it doesn’t occupy (akin to a photographic negative). For example, Bhimpalasi’s ‘negative’, if counted from the unfilled shuddha Ni position, has intervals of ‘2–3–2–2–3’: matching those of Durga (SRmPDS: see below). By default, all negatives in the project take their Sa as the first unused position anti-clockwise from the ‘real Sa’ (e.g. Bhimpalasi: ‘Ni; ‘2–3–2–2–3’=SRmPDS’) – although, given the concept’s abrstract nature, the Sa location is somewhat arbitrary (i.e. whole murchana sets are arguably just as relevant). Not to be confused with reverse – and also see ‘self-shadowing‘ (where a raga’s negative matches its core form). Included mainly for the sake of curious fascination, rather than as a ‘core’ analytical tool.
(‘negative’ of Bhimpalasi = Durga)
• Ni (Nishad): The seventh and final step of the sapta swara, offering both komal (lowered) and shuddha (natural) options. While these are somewhat equivalent to the Western b7 and ♮7 (=1000 and 1100 cents), the Hindustani Ni may also take nearby sruti (plus, swaras are much more than just ‘notes’). The swara’s name is thought to derive from the Nishadas, a fabled kingdom of hill-dwelling tribes mentioned in the Mahabharata and other ancient texts.
• Ni (Nishad): main page •
Komal ni: present
Komal ni: only
Komal ni: varjit
Komal ni: imperfect
Komal ni: detached
Shuddha Ni: present
Shuddha Ni: only
Shuddha Ni: varjit
Shuddha Ni: imperfect
Shuddha Ni: detached
Generic Ni: present
Generic Ni: varjit
Double Ni: present
Mirror: n–G | nN–Gm | N–m
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Nomtom: A Dhrupad-derived alap device based on the rhythmic singing of syllables such as ‘Nom’, ‘Tom’, ‘Tam’, ‘Na’, ‘Ne’, ‘De’, and ‘Re’. Often deployed at the start of a raga, as well as in the jor, nomtom focuses on syllabic beauty rather than semantic meaning – see Darbhanga exponents Premkumar & Prashant Mallick’s fascinating Abhogi nomtom below. Also see sargam, dhatu, and tarana.
–Abhogi Nomtom (Mallicks)–
• Non-zero Sa: A term coined here to describe practices of rendering Sa at a pitch other than zero cents (a ‘nudged root’). For example, Dagarvani Dhrupad artists often conceptualise their Sa in terms of sruti, intoning it differently depending on the character of the raga in question (below: Bahauddin Dagar tunes his ‘seven shades of Sa’ in accordance with the sun’s daily arc – building on the ideas of his father Zia Mohiuddin, who “surrounded [his Sa] by 3 augmented conditions and 3 diminished conditions up and down…”). Seen this way, an ‘imperfect root’ is more like a ‘melodic scale function’ than a ‘fundamental point’ for the tuning system (e.g. in setting the tanpura) – perhaps revealing some of the ambiguity behind Western terms such as ‘root’, and how they differ from the Indian idea of ‘Sa’. Also see inharmonicity & stretched tuning.
–’Seven Shades of Sa’ (Bahauddin Dagar)–
• Nyas: A ‘stopping note’ or ‘resting tone’, which can be sustained at the end of a melodic line (Sanskrit: ‘sitting, stabilising’) – e.g. shuddha ma in Bageshri. Also see deergha and vishranti.
• Pa (Pancham): The fifth step of the sapta swara. While roughly equivalent to the Western perfect 5th interval (=700 cents), the Hindustani Pa tends to be nudged very slightly higher, to the ‘pure’ 5th of 702 cents – plus, swaras are much more than just ‘notes’ (e.g. Pa has ancient associations with the calls of cuckoos and nightingales). Derived from the Sanskrit for ‘five’ (also used in the names of other musical phenomena, such as Thyagaraja’s Pancharatna Kriti: a folio of five legendary Carnatic compositions).
• Pa (Pancham): main page •
Pa: present
Pa: varjit
Pa: imperfect
Pa: detached
Mirror: P–r | MP-Sr | Pd–rR
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Pakad: A raga’s ‘essential catchphrases’ (literally: ‘catch’ or ‘hold’) – i.e. the basic swara combinations that define its melodic character and distinguish it from prakriti forms. Pakads typically comprise only a handful of swaras (e.g. Jog’s main pakad is ‘GmgS’, and Jaijaiwanti’s is ‘RnDPR’). Also see chalan and core form.
• Palta: A percussive performance concept involving the sequential expansion of a kayda or rela into a longer set of variations.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Pandit: A common honorific term for ‘highly learned’ musicians of Hindu heritage (e.g. ‘Pandit Nikhil Banerjee’), often with the added implication of having taught students to a high level of performance too – although there is no ‘official’ system of certification. The term can also apply to experts of classical dance and other creative fields (and shares roots with the English ‘pundit’). Also see Ustad, Begum, Vidushi, and Fundit.
• Parampara: See guru and shishya.
• Paran: A form of percussive performance derived from the historic repertoire of the pakhawaj, involving the repetition of specific bol patterns using open-resonant strokes (and usually ending in a tihai). Used in similar fashion to describe a rhythmic component of kathak dance.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Pitch class: The semitonal specific swara sequence of a raga’s core form, expressed as ‘octaveless‘ ascending numbers from 0-11 (i.e. Sa:0, re:1, Re:2, …ni:10, Ni:11) – thus indicating ‘which frets to press down’ on a 12-tet string to play the scale.
• Poorvang: The ‘lower tetrachord’ of the saptak (octave), typically taken to include the generic swaras Sa–Re–Ga–Ma. Some ragas, including Yaman, tend towards ‘poorvang-dominance’ – i.e. with melodic exploration predominantly focused in the lower half of the octave (some scholars use the location of the vadi to categorise ‘poorvang v. uttarang dominance’, although real-world swara relationships are often far too complex for this binary). Also see my ‘poorvang-dominant‘ category.
• Prachalit: A term for ‘common’ or ‘popular’ ragas, such as Bhairavi, Malkauns, Yaman, and Jog (as opposed to aprachalit: ‘rare’ ragas). See Deepak Raja’s superb Ragascape articles for a ‘performance popularity’ rundown, encompassing various sources (unsurprisingly, the chart-topper of our era is…Bhairavi, followed by Bhimpalasi, and then Yaman) – which inform my own ‘prachalit‘ and ‘A-list‘ raga categories.
• Prahar: A traditional Sanskrit conception of dividing the sun’s daily cycle into eight portions of 3 hours each: with four prahars each for the day and night (which, given India’s proximity to the equator, are of relatively equal length all year round). Most ragas are assigned to a particular prahar, usually determined by the positions of particular swaras or other more contextual factors (seasonal associations are also of interlinked relevance: e.g. Basant is a springtime raga, whereas Miyan ki Malhar is fabled to summon the monsoon rains). Also see the broader concept of samay, as well as sandhiprakash (dawn/dusk forms) – and my raga categories for Morning, Afternoon, Evening, & Night.
• Prakriti: A term describing ragas which share the same set of specific swaras (literally: ‘natural form’) – for example Bageshri and Bhimpalasi (SRgmPDnS), Marwa and Puriya (SrgMDNS), or Bhairavi and Bilaskhani Todi (SrgmPdnS). Also used in older scholarship to refer to the two ‘fixed’ swaras (Sa and Pa: see achal).
• Prayoga: A general term for ‘melodic motion or element’ – e.g. Samant Sarang involves ‘shuddha Dha taken in vakra prayogas’. Also see sangati, prakar, chaya, & ang.
• Qawwali: A renowned form of Sufi spiritual music aimed at evoking shared experiences of the divine (from Arabic qawwal: ‘he who sings prophetic utterances’). Typically performed in groups, a lead vocalist leads other singers through looping, recitative ‘verse-chorus’ sequences, usually backed by some mix of harmonium, tabla, dholak, and hand-claps. Melodies and improvisations often draw from Hindustani raga without being moored to its exacting strictures, with lyrics mostly comprising mystical poetry: rich in vivid symbolism and sensory experience. Read more in my Ragatip Qawwali rundown (“the style’s strident chanting and relentless tabla loops are intended to captivate anyone in attendance, aimed at summoning states of ego-loss and extreme spiritual focus“).
–Mustt Mustt (Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Rabindrasangeet: Songs composed by Bengali cultural icon Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) – a polymathic creator who united disparate themes in his 2,000+ lyrical tunes, addressing themes of devotion, mysticism, nationalism, eroticism, and more. Listen to Sahana Devi (Tagore’s favourite vocalist) explore some Rabindrasangeet classics – and read more in my Ragatip Rabindrasangeet rundown (“Westerners, ever-prone to compress Indian phenomena into their own pre-shaped boxes, often describe Tagore as the ‘Indian Shakespeare’ – although the English Bard’s interests were positively narrow compared to those of the Subcontinental polymath, who moved between poetry, painting, playwriting, public speaking, and other creative forms…“). Also see light-classical.
–Rup Sagore Dub Diyechhi (Sahana Devi)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Raga: The melodic groundings of Indian classical music – central to both the Hindustani and Carnatic (Northern and Southern) traditions. To oversimplify, ragas function like ‘melodic mood recipes’: each presenting their own ‘ingredients’, such as core phrases, note hierarchies, ascending & descending lines, and ornamentation patterns – as well as rules and guidelines for how to blend them. Despite this detail, ragas are much more about aesthetics than theory, aimed foremost at summoning their own unique set of sentiments and colours (the word derives from the Sanskrit for ‘that which colours the mind’: hence the name of this website!).
(Shahid Parvez @ Darbar 2018)
• Ragamalika: A ‘multi-raga shuffle’ (literally ‘garland of ragas’) – involving frequent scale-switching during the course of the same continuous piece. While more common in Carnatic music (see below), it also appears in Hindustani settings, as documented by Aneesh Pradhan (other sub-forms include the ‘ragasagar’: a form of ‘self-referential vocal ragamalika’ where each raga is named or otherwise alluded to in the words of the bandish). Listen to a stellar ragamalika from Sultan Khan (below), as well as examples by Veena Sahsrabuddhe (based around Rageshri) and Sadhana Shiledar (“a blend of 15 ragas grouped into three [sections]. The first contains the names of Krishna, the second of Shiva, and third of various Goddesses…the ragas are Shree > Shyam Kalyan > Nand > Kedar > Sarang | Nat > Jog > Bairagi > Shankara > Kalyan | Bageshri > Shivranjani > Gauri > Lalit > Bhairavi”). The interchangable term ‘ragmala‘ (or ‘ragamala’) may also refer to Medieval miniature paintings depicting the ‘sentiments of ragas’ – as well as being the title of Ravi Shankar’s 1995 autobiography. [n.b. In North India, ‘ragmala’ is often favoured over the Southern-tinged ‘ragamalika’: however, for the sake of indexing facility, I reserve ‘ragamalika’ for the aural case, and ‘ragmala’ for the visual.]
–Ragamalika (Sultan Khan)–
(Khamaj > Yaman > Shankara > Shahana > Basant > Darbari > Bihag)
• Raganga: A set of concepts concerning the ‘familial characteristics’ or ‘shared melodic DNA’ of ragas (literally: ‘limbs of raga’). A raganga typically comprises swara combinations (e.g. the Kanada family’s ‘gmR’ phrase), along with other melodic quirks (e.g. the Malhar family’s rain-bringing slides and glides) – in Rajan Parrikar’s words, a raganga is “a collection of tonal phrases…a generalisation of melodic ‘observations’…which may then be brought to bear in specific situations”. Prominent examples include the families of Malhar, Todi, Bhairav, and Kanada.
• Ragini: An archaic concept based on designating particular ragas as the ‘wives’ of others (e.g. Kedar is considered a ragini of Deepak), often in parallel to the mythologies of male and female Hindu deities. Though mostly abandoned today, the idea held a prominent place in Sanskrit aesthetic discourse of past eras, with Medieval scholarship often listing 36 raginis, each connected to six season-specific ‘principal ragas’ (ancestors to the modern Shree, Basant, Bhairav, Pancham, Megh, and Nat Narayan). As summarised by R.W. Flora: “[in] the earliest known series of ragmala paintings from Western India, dating from c.1475…eleven have bhasa inscribed after their name, as in Dravidi Bhasa (‘Drāvidī female-mode’)…This combination of raga/bhasa seems to be a faint echo of the gramaraga/bhasa gender distinction in evidence from the late first millennium…[but] by the middle of the 16th century…the word ragini has replaced bhasa to designate feminine gender”).
(‘Asavari, Fourth Wife of Shri’: Rajasthan, c.1790)
• Ragmala: Literally meaning ‘garland of ragas’ (or, strictly, ‘beaded string of ragas’), the ragmala is a genre of Indian miniature painting depicting the sentiments of different ragas, prevalent in Indian royal palaces from around the 15th century onwards. Typically created in loose-leaf folios of either 36 or 42 paintings, ragmala often depict scenes of courtship, worship, and ritual amidst vivid natural-world backdrops, rich with seasonal association and associative symbology. As per a 2014 Met Museum collection, “viewing these paintings was a pleasurable pastime for courtiers and their guests…ragamalas were also painted as murals in the private quarters of palaces, though few of these have survived”. The art form also encompasses temple carvings, such as the 12th-century examples at Kalgi. [n.b. In North India, the term ‘ragmala’ may also to the ‘multi-raga shuffle’ performance format – defined here as ‘ragamalika’.]
• All pages with ragmala art •
• Rasa: An ancient aesthetic concept loosely translatable as ‘sentiment’, ‘essence’, ‘flavour’, ‘juice’, or ‘quintessence’ – as in, the sentiments summoned through a raga. The Natyashastra defines eight principal rasas, although another – shantha (‘tranquillity’) – was added in the following centuries to complete the ‘navarasa’ (‘nine essences’) – although many also treat bhakti (devotion) as an additional ‘meta-rasa’, woven into the fabric of all others. Also see bhava.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Nine Rasas: try matching them up…)
• Rasika: A ‘connoisseur’ or ‘informed listener’ of Hindustani music – one who seeks out outstanding raga renditions.
• Raudra: Translatable as ‘fury’, ‘anger’, or ‘aggression’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates raudra with Lord Shiva, as well as the colour red (n.b. ‘rudra veena‘: ‘roaring veena’, takes its name from a similarly Shaivite association).
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Raudra Shiva, ~18th century)
• Re (Rishab): The second step of the sapta swara, offering both komal (lowered) and shuddha (natural) options. While these are somewhat equivalent to the Western b2 and ♮2 (=100 and 200 cents), the Hindustani Re may also take a nearby sruti – plus, swaras are much more than just ‘notes’ (e.g. Rishab, meaning ‘bull’ in Sanskrit, is traditionally associated with erotic energies and the songs of skylarks). Oddly, could be argued that the shuddha Re is present in virtually all tabla-accompanied ragas, regardless of actual swara set – since the dayan’s open ‘Tun‘ stroke is tuned to this tone.
• Re (Rishabh): main page •
Komal re: present
Komal re: only
Komal re: varjit
Komal re: imperfect
Komal re: detached
Shuddha Re: present
Shuddha Re: only
Shuddha Re: varjit
Shuddha Re: imperfect
Shuddha Re: detached
Generic Re: present
Generic Re: varjit
Double Re: present
Mirror: r–P | rR–Pd | R–d
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Rela: A fast, high-intensity form of tabla performance (literally: ‘rush, flood, torrent’), involving the elaboration of loud, resonant bol patterns (and typically ending in a tihai). Read more in my Tales of the Tabla series for Ragatip (“the rela acted as a sort of ‘quasi-recording’ technology, aiming to capture the sounds of the colonial railways…the first tracks were laid in the 1850s, but microphones would not spread across India for another half century…”). Also see theka, palta, & paran.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Reverse: The swara set produced by using a raga’s interval sequence to ‘count backwards’ from Sa instead of forwards. For example Bhupali (SRGPDS) has intervals of ‘2–2–3–2–3’ – which, when ‘reversed’ (see below), gives ‘3–2–3–2–2’ (matching the shape of Malkauns: SgmdnS). Ragas which take an identical interval set ‘both ways’ around their swara wheel (such as Bhairav and Charukeshi) are classified as ‘palindromic’. Not to be confused with negative.
(Reverse of Bhupali = Malkauns)
• Riyaz: Refers to ‘rigorous practice sessions’ when learning raga – traditionally involving detailed exercises set to the shishya by their guru (rom the Urdu riyada: ‘training, taming, pacifying, placating’). Also see sadhana.
• Rupa: The ‘general structure’ underlying a raga’s melodic form and phraseological characteristics (often used as a suffix: e.g. ‘raga-rupa’ or ‘swarup’). Also see pakad, chalan, lakshan, and core form.
• Sa (Shadja): The ‘foundational swara’ of the Hindustani raga system – a ‘home tone’ to which the tanpura drone and ‘Na‘ tabla tone are both tuned. While somewhat encompassing the Western idea of ‘root’, the concept of Sa extends far beyond this (e.g. traditional scholarship associates it with the sound of the peacock: India’s national bird). The swara’s full name derives from the Sanskrit ‘shad’ (‘six’) – with Shadja meaning ‘of the six organs of the body’, or ‘giving birth to six offspring’ (=Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, & Ni: the ‘sapta swara‘). Sa is also the only swara present in every raga (although some, such as Marwa, may omit their own Sa for long stretches). In some instances, the ‘scale-tone Sa’ of the melodic lead instrument may be set to a subtly different frequency to the ‘drone Sa’ of the tanpura (particularly in Dhrupad: see non-zero Sa).
• Sa (Shadja): main page •
Sa: imperfect
Sa: detached
Mirror: S–M (‘palindromic’)
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Sadhana: Roughly translatable as ‘immersive practice’ – i.e. the devotional states of ‘whole-person focus’ which form the ideal basis for raga learning (as described to me by Parveen Sultana, “Sadhana is about finding courage, it means having full concentration…Your riyaz must be sadhana. But it is not only about raag singing. It is like meditation: when I’m doing my riyaz, I don’t know where I am…”).
• Sadra: A song form based around lyrical-melodic elaboration with light taans and brisk embellishments, rooted in the era when khayal began to diverge from Dhrupad (~15th century) – often set to cycles such as sultal (10 matras) or chautal (12). Listen to a superb sadra in Shankara Karan by Ali Akbar Khan & Asha Bhosle (Ananda Mukha Chanda: ‘Her face looks bright and happy…’) – and also see bandish, gat, and light-classical.
• Sakari: A sruti of Ni which is intoned between the komal and shuddha positions (very roughly speaking, a ‘quarter-tonal’ swara). Some traditions use a ‘sakari Ni’ (also called ‘cahari’) in ragas of the Darbari family – e.g. Agra vocalist Faiyyaz Khan (Darbari), Imdadkhani sitarist Budhaditya Mukherjee (Darbari), and Senia-Bangash sarodiya Hafiz Ali Khan (Jungala) – and a very similar idea turns up in Jaipur-Atrauli ragas featuring the ‘Hussaini’ phrase (given in Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar‘s breakdown of Hussaini Todi as mPD, (SnS)nS, m, mPDnS, with the higher Ni sruti in the first ornament). Typically, this practice only applies to the Ni just below taar Sa, and may not be applied consistently throughout a performance (e.g. during drut taans, intonation may shift closer to the tones immediately before or after). Also see Lagan Gandhar: Kumar Gandharva’s ‘triple-Ga’ creation – as well as further analyses of Darbari’s sruti from Deepak Raja and Wim van der Meer.
• Sam: The ‘one-beat’ of a tala cycle – in other words, the start/end point of the ‘rhythm loop’. Roughly translatable as ‘balanced’, ‘equal’, or ‘together’, the sam is the most important point in the cycle – and typically the moment where tension is most likely to be released (for example a tihai should be timed to end exactly on the sam).
(Tintal: sam, matras, vibhag, tali, khali)
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Samay: The traditional conception of assigning ragas to specific ‘time periods’, based on dividing the sun’s 24-hour path into 8 three-hour segments (e.g. Ahir Bhairav is a dawn raga, while Shree is associated with the twilight). Seasonal associations can also feature (e.g. Basant is a springtime raga, whereas Miyan ki Malhar is fabled to summon the monsoon rains). While the samay system holds less sway today than in centuries past, these encultured intercopannections are vital to understanding the fullness of raga, reminding us of the music’s roots in the cycles of nature. Also see prahar & sandhiprakash.
• Samika: A term describing ragas which feature only three generic swaras in their core form (n.b. ‘triswari’ has the same meaning). Some contest the validity of the category, arguing that a ‘full raga’ should always contain at least 5 swaras, however the term is clearly applicable in cases such as Malashree (SGP), as well as the aroha of many Jait/Jaitashree interpretations. Also see surtar, audav, shadav, and sampurna.
• Sampurna: A term describing ragas which include all seven generic swaras in their core form (literally meaning ‘complete’, as in ‘all sapta swara are present’). For example, Darbari is sampurna throughout (Sa-Re-ga-ma-Pa-dha-ni), as is Charukeshi (Sa-Re-Ga-ma-Pa-dha-ni) – whereas Bhimpalasi (Sa-ni-Dha-Pa-ma-ga-Re) is only sampurna in avroh. Also see jati – as well as my ‘sampurna‘ category.
Surtar | Audav | Shadav | Sampurna
• Samvadi: The ‘secondary swara’ of a raga (variously translated as ‘queen note’, or, due to the particularities of the Indian political system, ‘prime minister note’). Traditional theory holds that the samvadi must be separated from the vadi (primary note) by a perfect 5th either up or down (e.g. a Pa vadi implies that the samvadi is either Sa or shuddha Re). While the ‘vadi-samvadi’ concept is still prominent in raga scholarship, many gurus caution against overemphasising this abstraction, instead arguing for the primacy of pakad, chalan, and melodic repertoire in defining a raga’s character. Also see anuvadi (‘normal swaras’), vivadi (‘rare swaras’), and varjit (‘forbidden swaras’).
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Sanchari: The third of four dhatus (stanzas) in a traditional Dhrupad composition (coming after the sthayi and antara, and before the abhog: although the final two sections are often omitted in modern times). Also used more broadly to indicate passages of melodic ‘progression’ (e.g. those which span all saptak). Also see chaturang.
• Sandhiprakash: A term describing ragas associated with the dawn or dusk hours (Sanskrit: ‘the joining of light’). Examples include Bhairav & Bhairavi (morning), as well as Marwa & Poorvi (evening). Also see samay and prahar.
• Sangati: Refers to the ‘pairing’ or ‘interlinking’ of two or more swaras – i.e. indicating some form of conjunction in their rendering patterns (e.g. Bageshri’s ‘ma–Dha sangati’ involves prominent use of this interval in both directions, while Ramkali’s ‘rd sangati’ involves tuning these two swaras to a ‘matched pair’ of higher sruti). In Carnatic music (and sometimes further North too), sangati (or ‘sangathi’) may also refer to processes of melodic exposition and variation. Also see vadi–samvadi.
• Sangeet: A broad-use term for any form of ‘song’ or ‘music’, also used outside the world of raga (derived from the Sanskrit for ‘singing together’: although in previous eras it also referred to classical dance forms).
• Sankirna: A ‘syncretic’ raga – i.e. formed via mixing two or more existing ragas together (e.g. Bageshri Bahar or Jaijaiwanti Nat). As per the liner notes to Bhimsen Joshi’s Rarely Heard Ragas album (featuring both these examples), sankirna ragas must “carve a unique space for themselves…it is the sign of a great master to be able to display their distinct individuality, separating them from their parents”. Sankirna forms are alternately termed ‘shade ragas’ by Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar and other Jaipur-Atrauli vocalists (see her superb Amodini series: “all these ragas come under the classification of ‘sankirna’, but I use the term ‘chaya’ [‘shade’] for simplification…”). Also see achop & aprachalit.
• Sanskrit: A historical Indo-Aryan classical language, traditionally used for Indian religious, scholarly, and artistic discourse – including the foundational texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, as well as countless other influential works covering epic poetry, spiritual practice, political history, musical principles, and much more. While not spoken as a first language in the modern age, Sanskrit underlies a vast array of extant North Indian dialects, including Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, and Gujarati – and is also heavily linked to the lineages of Greek and Latin via its posited precursor language of ‘Proto-Indo-European’. Browse a pleasing list of Sanskrit-derived English terms, including ‘orange‘ (from naranga: orange tree), ‘crimson’ (krmi-ja: ‘red dye produced by a worm’), ‘candy’ (khandakah: ‘crystallised sugar fragments’), ‘thug‘ (sthaga: ‘ruffian, scoundrel’), ‘jungle’ (jangala: oddly meaning ‘arid’), and ‘musk’ (muska: thought to indicate either ‘testicle’ or ‘mouse’). Also see Braj Bhasha and lakshanagrantha.
(Sanskrit verses from the Rigveda)
• Sapta swara: The full set of seven generic swaras in the Hindustani saptak (sapta: ‘seven’): Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, & Ni. Also see sampurna (‘complete’: ragas featuring all of the sapta swara).
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
• Saptak: Literally meaning ‘seven’ (as in, the sapta swara), this term typically indicates ‘octave height’ – as in, whether a swara should be played in the mandra (low), madhya (middle), or taar (high) octaves of the instrument in question.
• Sargam: A ‘solmization’ system based on assigning particular syllables to each swara. In Hindustani music, these are ‘Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni‘. Much like the ‘moveable Do’ variant of Western solfège, the system is always ‘relative’, setting ‘Sa’ as the raga’s root regardless of pitch (Indian classical music is predominantly ‘modal’: i.e. based on exploring within particular scalar frameworks, rather than modulating between them). Sargam can also refer to the practice of singing these note-names out loud (common in khayal), and it can even be used to spell out semantically-meaningful words and phrases – e.g. Ravi Shankar‘s ‘Ga-Ni-Dha’ motif in his composition of Mohankauns, to honour the passing of Mahatma ‘Ga-n-dhi’ (see further word-melodies in my Alpha-melodics article).
• Sawal-jawab: A playful form of melodic-rhythmic interaction which sees the tabla accompanist imitate rhythmic patterns supplied by the melodic lead, often aiming to ‘copy’ them as exactly as their drums can allow. Popular for less-formal ragas, the sawal-jawab typically sees performers alternate in ‘ever-halving’ sequences (e.g. switching back-and-forth in cycles of 16 matras, then 8, 4, 2, and 1, before commencing unison lines). Also see chand, tihai, and layakari.
–Sawal-Jawab (Darbar 2016)–
• Self-shadowing: Ragas where the ‘negative form’ matches the shape of their core form (below: the ‘unoccupied’ and ‘occupied‘ swara positions are rotations of the same interval shape). By necessity, all such ragas have exactly 6 specific swaras: with the only examples being the ‘maximally-symmetric‘ Sehera, and every member of the Shankara murchana set (e.g. Shankara, Gopika Basant, & Nayaki Kanada). See my ‘self-shadowing’ raga category – and also the related concept of rotational symmetry (‘self-murchana’).
(‘red=purple‘, e.g. Gopika Basant & Sehera)
Atritonal | Fragmented | Centred | Maximal | Self-shadowing | Komal Pa
• Shadav: A term describing ragas which include six generic swaras in their core form. For example, Marwa is shadav throughout (Sa-re-Ga-Ma-Dha-Ni), as is Parameshwari (Sa-re-ga-ma-Dha-ni) – whereas Adana is only shadav in ascent (Sa-Re-ma-Pa-dha-ni). Also see jati – and my ‘shadav‘ category.
Surtar | Audav | Shadav | Sampurna
• Shabad-Kirtan: See Kirtan.
• Shagrid: A rough Islamic equivalent of shishya (‘student’).
• Shantha: Translatable as ‘peace’, ‘stability’, or ‘tranquillity’ – one of the nine rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). While not listed among the Natyashastra‘s original eight, shantha gained acceptance as an ‘additional rasa’ between the 6th and 10th centuries – with scholars associating it with Lord Vishnu, as well as the colour white.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Harappa Priest King, 3000-2000 B.C.E.)
• Shastra: A ‘sacred book of principles’ for Hindustani classical arts – including various great historical treatises which seek to elaborate the divine workings of raga (notably: Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra, written around 200 A.D.). Also see lakshanagrantha.
• Shishya: A general term for ‘student’ or ‘disciple’, common in Hindu-derived traditions (Islamic musicians may prefer ‘shagrid’, an Urdu equivalent). Also see guru.
• Shringara: Translatable as ‘love’, ‘romance’, or ‘attraction’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates shringara with Lord Vishnu, as well as the colour light green. Ragas sometimes associated with this sentiment include Bilawal & Jaunpuri.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Nepalese Indra, ~13th century)
• Shuddha: The seven ‘pure’ or ‘unaltered’ specific swara positions in the Hindustani system (i.e. Sa, Re, Ga, ma, Pa, Dha, Ni: which collectively form Bilawal thaat: mirroring the Western Major Scale) – in contrast to the five vikrit (‘altered’) options, comprising komal and tivra positions (rgMdn). Also see achal (‘fixed’) – and my ‘all-shuddha‘ raga category.
• Ucharana: The ‘intonation and punctuation’ of a raga. Also see alankar, sruti, and lakshan.
• Specific swara: Refers to the ‘semitonal position’ of a swara (i.e. including its komal, shuddha, tivra status, thus specifying how many semitones it is from Sa). The 12 specific swara positions of the Hindustani system (S, r, R, g, G, m, M, P, d, D, n, N: listen here) are grouped into 7 generic swaras (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni): as each of the chal swaras offer two specific positions (rR, gG, mM, dD, nN), while Sa & Pa are achal (‘fixed’: i.e. their generic and specific positions cannot differ). Roughly akin to the Western concept of ‘generic/specific intervals’ (e.g. 3rds may be either Major or Minor). Also see sargam and sapta swara.
• Sruti: A broad term referring to the ‘microtonal inflections’ used in Indian classical music (both Hindustani and Carnatic) – e.g. Bageshri‘s shuddha Dha takes a lower sruti of around 886 cents from Sa (vs. 900 in 12-tet). Many sources, both ancient and modern, discuss a set of 22 specific sruti (1 each for the achal Sa & Pa, and 2 each for the 10 chal positions) – but in the modern era, this is mostly a case of ‘theory disconnecting from practice’: none of the various 22-note reckonings suggested by scholars (see table below) really match up to the infinite microtonal shades which are actually used in raga performance.
(Sruti variance as ‘% from Sa’: Ranade, 1979)
• Sthayi: The first of four dhatus (stanzas) in a traditional Dhrupad composition (coming before the antara, sanchari, and abhog). Similarly used in khayal music to indicate the opening line of a bandish or gat. Also see mukhda and lehra.
• Surtar: A term describing ragas which feature only four generic swaras in their core form (notably including ‘chatuswari’ Bhavani: SRmD). Some contest the validity of this category, arguing that a full raga should always contain at least 5 swaras – however the term is undoubtedly relevant to cases such as Khem Kalyan‘s ‘quadratonal’ SGPN aroha. Also see jati – as well as ‘samika‘ (3-toned ragas).
Surtar | Audav | Shadav | Sampurna
• Swara: A complex term with no clear English equivalent, referring to the extended conceptions of ‘musical note’, ‘scale position’, or ‘raga-tone function’ in Hindustani music. Derived from the Sanskrit svar (‘sound, accent, note’), the idea of swara extends much further than that of a Western ‘note’, encompassing deep cultural and symbological associations as well as implications around the sruti, tonal gravity, and ornamental character of a raga’s scale-tone positions. Also see each of the sapta swara (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni) – as well as the ‘generic vs. specific swara‘ distinction.
“The term ‘note’ does not come within driving distance: in a well-developed raga, the mutual interactions between swaras and clusters of swaras evolve into a perceptible and stable gestalt. The overall form of the raga in turn feeds back and influences the behaviour and properties of the swaras…the two entities are intertwined. The more evolved a raga, the stronger this coupling. Within the framework of raga, it is meaningless to talk about a swara or a shruti or a note in isolation; the situation brings to mind an image expressed by John A. Wheeler in the context of General Relativity: ‘Spacetime tells matter how to move, matter tells spacetime how to curve’…” (Parrikar)
• Swara wheel: A method of representing ragas around a 12-point ‘wheel’ (like a 12-hour clock face) – with the swaras used being filled in (see core form), and the varjit tones left blank (see negative). This presents a concise and precise abstraction of its melodic geometries – revealing properties such as mirror symmetry, palindromicity, maximality, and centredness – and also greatly aids with the rapid memorisation of scale forms (‘shape-learning’ is the strongest mnemonic method). This approach is intended as a ‘transcultural’ analytic tool: regardless of musical system, the geometries of a swara wheel are ‘self-evident’, derived directly from the vibrational frequencies of the music itself (although tuning systems which do not approximate to 12-tet require a different number of ‘points’). Also see ‘constellation’ (‘joining a raga’s swara-dots’).
(Bairagi, Bhairav, Zila Kafi)
• Taan: Melodic lines played in relatively faster and denser fashion (sometimes defined as having ‘more than 2 swaras per matra’). Typically improvised, taans often set elaborate alankar amidst a range of rhythmic subdivisions (n.b. some artists may slightly relax the rules of the raga during the ‘taankari’, partly for reasons of physical convenience: e.g. it is difficult to play fast vakra lines on a sitar’s single melody string). Artists may employ many different types of taan: including ‘sapat’ (straight: e.g. SRGM PDNS NDPM GRS), ‘vakra’ (zigzagging: e.g. SND NDP DPM PMG), ‘gamak’ (repeated: e.g. GGMM PPDD PPDD NNSS), ‘sargam’ (using the sargam syllables), ‘bol’ (reworking the syllables of the bandish), and ‘mishra’ (mixed-form).
• Taar: Indicates ‘high’, usually in relation to melodic register (e.g. ‘taar saptak’ = high octave). Also see mandra (low) and madhya (medium) – as well as the distinct term tar (string) – although spellings may overlap.
• Tala: The general term for Hindustani rhythms and rhythmic cycles (literally: ‘clap’) – e.g. the 16-matra ‘tintal’, the 12-matra ‘ektal’, and the 7-matra ‘rupak taal’ (plus hundreds more!). Each tala comprises a theka (‘syllabic stroke-sequence’), divided into tali (‘stressed’) and khali (’empty’) portions, anchored by a unified start/endpoint known as sam. See my Tala Index for more: as well as the various rhythmic devices below.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Tali: The stressed or ‘filled’ vibhags of a tala cycle: characterised by the inclusion of bass-resonant bayan tabla strokes, and signified by a ‘clap’ of the hand (in contrast to the unstressed ‘khali’ portions: absent of bass and indicated with a wave). For example tintal’s 1st, 2nd, & 4th vibhags are tali (4-4-4-4: ‘clap-clap-wave-clap’), as are rupak’s 2nd & 3rd (3-2-2: ‘wave-clap-clap’). These hand signals can often be observed amongst the audience of a tabla recital.
(Tintal: sam, matras, vibhag, tali, khali)
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Tanpura: A four-string lute used to provide a droning backdrop to Indian classical music. Plucked in slow, unchanging sequence throughout a performance, the tanpura anchors and intensifies the raga at hand, accentuating particular intervals and overtones. Typically tuned to ‘Pa-Sa-Sa-Sa’ or ‘ma-Sa-Sa-Sa’, the instrument is thought to have descended from the Middle Eastern tanbur around the late 16th century – although its design also draws from India’s own historic lineage of droning lutes. Also see nada brahma and my Tanpura Samples page.
• Tantrakari: Describes ‘instrumental style’ playing devices (in rough contrast to gayaki: ‘vocal style’) – based around ideas such as rhythmic plucking techniques, crisp intervallic switching, and (arguably) multi-layered harmonisations. Strongly exemplified on the sitar and sarod, and, more recently, the santoor: which, with no capacity to ‘glide’ between swaras, is arguably the least ‘vocalistic’ of all Hindustani lead instruments (Deepak Raja: “Shivkumar Sharma has substantially accelerated the process…of freeing instrumental music from its traditional reference point in vocal music”). Also see layakari (rhythmic interplay).
• Tappa: A semi-classical style derived from the folk songs of Punjabi camel riders – characterised by rapid ornaments and rhythmic irregularities (vocalists ‘jolt’ and ‘bounce’ their way through its twisting melodies, as if sitting on the animals themselves). Lyrics, often in Punjabi, depict scenes of separation, dramatising the passionate outbursts of jealous lovers. Read more in my Tappa overview for Ragatip.
–Sohini Tappa (Shashwati Mandal)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Tar: A Sanskrit-rooted term for ‘string’ – e.g. the ‘baaj tar’ of a sitar is the ‘main playing string’, while the instrument’s name itself derives from ‘seh-tar’ (Persian for ‘3-string instrument’…only 17 short of the modern design). Also see taar: a distinct term meaning ‘higher pitch/saptak’ (although spellings may overlap).
• Tarana: A Persian-infused vocal form based around the rapid singing of semantically meaningless syllables (such as the pahkawaj-derived ‘Na‘, ‘Dhere‘, ‘Tana‘, & ‘Deen‘). While in fact a gradual development, one famous (if fanciful) myth holds that tarana was invented by Amir Khusro during a singing competition at the court of 14th-century Delhi ruler Allaudin Khalji: which saw Khusro spontaneously convert Sanskrit verses sung by fellow star Gopal Nayak into a ‘meaningless syllabic equivalent’, using similar-sounding words from his own Persian tongue – astounding onlookers and winning the grand prize. Also see the Dhrupad-derived nomtom (and the Carnatic thillana), as well as the bol system of tabla.
–Yaman Tarana (Rashid Khan)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Thaat: A system of raga classification pioneered by V.N. Bhatkhande (1860-1936), involving ten ‘basic scales’ [n.b. the common translation of ‘parent scale’ is misleading: the ragas came long before the scales!]. These ‘reference forms’, to which any raga can be related, are all sampurna:
—Kalyan (S-R-G-M-P-D-N-S)—
—Bilawal (S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S)—
—Khamaj (S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S)—
—Kafi (S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S)—
—Asavari (S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S)—
—Bhairavi (S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S)—
—Bhairav (S-r-G-m-P-d-N-S)—
—Marwa (S-r-G-M-P-D-N-S)—
—Poorvi (S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S)—
—Todi (S-r-g-M-P-d-N-S)—
Some ragas fit exactly into a thaat (e.g. Yaman takes Kalyan’s exact 7 tones) or can be described neatly enough (e.g. Vachaspati: ‘Kalyan but with komal ni’) – although plenty more defy easy summarisation (e.g. it is unclear how best to classify ragas such as Pilu or Charukeshi). See my full article for more: Beyond Bhatkhande’s Base Scales, featuring an expanded ‘dartboard’ of 32 scales:
(‘Dartboard‘: 32 sampurna scales)
• Theka: The ‘basic phrase set’ underlying the loop of a tala cycle – i.e. the essential sequence of strokes or bol syllables which identify and define it (see examples in my Tala Index). For example, rupak‘s theka is:
3-2-2: (Tin Tin Na) (Dhin Dha) (Dhin Dha)
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Thumri: A popular light-classical song style which blends raga concepts with the kathak-infused performance traditions stemming from 19th-century Lucknow and Benares. Lyrics, typically poetic in nature, often recount myths of Radha & Krishna – with storytelling and general semantic content often taking on greater relative importance than in khayal or Dhrupad vocalism. Read more in Jameela Siddiqi’s brief Thumri overview.
–Bhairavi Thumri (Nina Burmi)–
Bhajan | Thumri | Ghazal | Dhun | Qawwali | Tarana | Tappa | Filmi | Kirtan | Kathak | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
• Tihai: A rhythmic resolution device involving thrice-repeating a phrase so that the final stroke falls back on the sam of the tala cycle (literally: ‘three times’). Idiosyncratic to Hindustani music, the tihai is central to defining ‘release points’ during a performance, temporarily pulling the listener’s perception away from the underlying theka via an array of precise repetition sequences, including chakradhar patterns (‘tihai within tihai’) and other mathematical tricks. Ragas often conclude with loud, swara-cascading ‘unison tihai’, played by rhythm and lead in exact sync. See more in my Tihai: Power of Threes article for Darbar (“three is the smallest number at which a pattern can be established, and then either confirmed or challenged…i.e. the lowest quantity which can really express deviation. While the tihai’s third rotation is identical in form to the two that precede it, surprise is generated from the fresh context the final point finds itself in…”). Listen to Sanju Sahai using a tihai to introduce a tintal solo.
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Tilted: See ‘centred‘.
• Tirobhav: The act of briefly deviating from (‘concealing, camouflaging’) a raga’s main form, usually via hinting at the shapes of neighbouring ragas. Also see avirbhav (‘revealing the original form again’).
• Tivra: A ‘raised’ or ‘sharpened’ version of a swara – either in the sense of its overall scale position (e.g. tivra Ma is a semitone higher than shuddha ma), or its microtonal sruti inflection (e.g. ‘ati-tivra’ indicates a ‘very sharp’ swara position). The Carnatic equivalent of ‘prati’ also finds occasional use in the North (as below, the Carantic system also allows for a ‘raised Re & Dha’: see Rasikpriya for an intriguing example of this in action, a.k.a. ‘Yaman tivra Re & Dha‘). Also see komal (‘flat’) and shuddha (‘natural’) – as well as my ‘ma-tivra‘ category.
• Ustad: An honorific title for master musicians of Islamic heritage (e.g. ‘Ustad Allauddin Khan‘), often with the added implication of having taught students to a high level too. Roughly equivalent to the Hindu term Pandit (also see Begum).
• Uttarang: The ‘upper tetrachord’ of the saptak, typically taken to include the highest four generic swara positions: Pa–Dha–Ni–Sa. Ragas such as Sohini tend towards ‘uttarang-dominance’ – i.e. with a melodic focus in the upper half of the scale. Some scholars use the location of the vadi to categorise ‘poorvang vs. uttarang dominance’, although real-world swara relationships are often far too complex for this simple binary. Also see my ‘uttarang-dominant‘ category.
• Vadi: The ‘predominant swara’ of a raga, traditionally described in terms such as ‘king note’, ‘ruling tone’, or ‘principal swara’ (literally: ‘speaker’ or ‘announcer’). While the vadi is often the most commonly-played tone, it need not be: there are multiple ways of bringing prominence or ‘importance’ to a swara (e.g. playing it rarely, but only using it for emphatic resolutions). Also see samvadi (‘secondary swara’), anuvadi (‘normal swaras’), vivadi (‘rare swaras’), and varjit (‘forbidden swaras’).
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Vakra: A ‘zigzagging’ melodic motion – e.g. Jog descends with a catchphrase of ‘GmgS’ (as opposed to the straight-line ‘mGgS’), and Darbari takes ‘gmRS’ (vs. ‘mgRS’).
• Varjit: A ‘forbidden’ element – usually, in reference to whichever swaras must never be played in a particular raga (e.g. all variants of Re and Pa are varjit in Malkauns). Also see vivadi (‘rare’) which some incorrectly treat as a synonym – as well as vadi (‘predominant swara’) samvadi (‘secondary swara’), and anuvadi (‘normal swaras’).
(‘varjit’ dha/Dha, e.g. Jog)
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Varna: A crucial concept in the historical evolution of raga (and also in modern Carnatic music), varna (‘colour, species, tribe, nature, quality’) refers to forms of ‘swara sequencing’ – such as resting, ascending, descending, and moving in mixed-order. Also see sanchari.
• Veera: Translatable as ‘courage’, ‘heroism’, or ‘determination’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: see below). The Natyashastra associates veera with the deity Indra, as well as the colour saffron. Ragas associated with this sentiment include Malkauns.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Hoysala battle scene, ~12th century)
• Vibhag: A ‘measure’ or ‘segment’ of rhythm, lasting no longer than a few matras. Each tala cycle comprises several vibhags (e.g. rupak’s three vibhags are divided as ‘3-2-2‘, while tintal has four, split ‘4-4-4-4‘). Somewhat akin to the Western idea of ‘bars‘.
(Tintal: sam, matras, vibhag, tali, khali)
Tala | Laya | Sam | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Bol | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Layakari | Tihai
• Hindustani Tala Index •
• Vibhatsa: Translatable as ‘disgust’, ‘aversion’, or ‘odiousness’ – one of the nine traditional rasas (‘aesthetic sentiments’: below). The Natyashastra associates vibhatsa with Lord Shiva, as well as the colour blue.
—Adbhuta (‘awe, wonder’)—
—Bhayanka (‘fear, terror’)—
—Hasya (‘humour, mirth’)—
—Karuna (‘mercy, compassion’)—
—Raudra (‘fury, anger’)—
—Shantha (‘peace, tranquility’)—
—Shringara (‘love, attraction’)—
—Veera (‘courage, heroism’)—
—Vibhatsa (‘aversion, disgust’)—
(Bhedagat Sri Vibhatsa, ~7th century)
• Vidushi: An honorific title for top-level female artists of Hindu heritage (translating more generally as ‘wise woman’). While somewhat equivalent to Pandit or Ustad, use of the term remains rare compared to these male-specific counterparts – a legacy of Indian classical music’s long and continued history of gender-based exclusion and discrimination. Also see Begum (an approximate counterpart for Muslim artists).
• Vikrit: The five ‘non-shuddha’ specific swara positions in the Hindustani system – i.e. the komal forms of re, ga, dha, & ni, and the tivra Ma (=rgMdn: see Meladalan) Also used more generally to indicate other forms of ‘swara alteration’. Also see achal (‘fixed’) chal (‘modifiable’).
• Vilambit: Indicates a slow laya (e.g. ‘vilambit ektal’ = slow 12-cycle). While no official bounds exist, vilambit tempos are typically of 60bpm or below – although interpretations vary depending on the tala in question (in particular, bada khayal renditions in ektal may notionally be as slow as ~12bpm, albeit heavily subdivided). Also see madhya (medium) and drut (fast). Listen to some in my Tala Index.
• Vishranti: Describes ‘stoppable swaras’ – i.e. those which are to be used as endpoints for taans and melodic lines (e.g. Dha in Shahana). Also see the related ideas of nyas (‘resting tone’) and deergha (‘elongation’).
• Vistar: The ‘elaboration’ or ‘exposition’ of a raga’s form – referring either to the unpulsed, unaccompanied section at the very start of the alap (the ‘anibhadda vistar’), or to the slow establishment of melodic structure in the early stages of a bada khayal in vilambit laya.
• Vivadi: While often erroneously used to mean the swaras which must be ‘avoided’, the term in fact refers to swaras outside the raga’s core form which can either be omitted or played occasionally to add subtle melodic colouration (e.g. some Hameer renditions treat komal ni as vivadi in aroha). Also see vadi (‘predominant swara’) samvadi (‘secondary swara’), anuvadi (‘normal swaras’), and varjit (‘forbidden swaras’) – as well as the ‘avirbhav–tirobhav‘ distinction.
Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Kan | Imperfect | Detached
• Browse by Topic •
Some broadly coherent groupings…
—Swara classification—
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni | Generic swara | Specific swara | Core form | Swara wheel | Shuddha | Komal | Tivra | Chal | Vikrit | Lakshan | Saptak | Jati | Surtar | Audav | Shadav | Sampurna | Vadi | Samvadi | Anuvadi | Vivadi | Varjit | Sangati | Reverse | Negative | Imperfect | Detached | Anhemitonic | Hemitonic | Equilateral | Balanced | Pitch class | Generator | Komal Pa | Self-shadowing | Atritonal | Fragmented | Maximal | Centred | Constellation | Poorvang | Uttarang | Asthan | Thaat
—Raga ingredients—
Swara | Sruti | Chalan | Pakad | Aroha | Avroh | Mukhda | Mukhya | Rupa | Alap | Jor | Jhalla | Gat | Bandish | Sthayi | Antara | Aochar | Vistar | Mohra | Lehra | Taan | Sargam | Sawal-jawab | Nomtom | Cheez | Prayoga | Lom-vilom | Layakari | Tantrakari | Jugalbandi | Prakriti | Bada khayal | Chota khayal | Chaturang | Dhatu | Sanchari | Ucharana | Abhog | Merukhand | Non-zero Sa
—Techniques & descriptors—
Vilambit | Madhya | Drut | Ati | Mandra | Taar | Alankar | Meend | Gamak | Andolan | Kan | Khatka | Murki | Nyas | Vishranti | Sakari | Deergha | Avirbhav | Tirobhav | Chaya | Durbal | Ang | Alpa | Baaj | Gayaki | Vakra | Mishra | Prachalit | Aprachalit | Jod | Achop | Sankirna
—Colours & moods—
Raga | Rasa | Adbhuta | Bhayanka | Hasya | Karuna | Raudra | Shringara | Veera | Vibhatsa | Shantha | Bhakti | Bhava
—Genres & styles—
Hindustani | Dhrupad | Carnatic | Khayal | Light-classical | Bhajan | Ghazal | Thumri | Tarana | Filmi | Abhang | Dhun | Kirtan | Qawwali | Sadra | Kathak | Tappa | Sangeet | Natyasangeet | Rabindrasangeet
—Titles & lineages—
Pandit | Ustad | Begum | Vidushi | Guru | Shishya | Shagrid | -ji | Gurukul | Gharana | Khalifa | Bani | Parampara | Rasika | Fundit
—Rhythmic elements—
Tala | Laya | Sam | Tihai | Matra | Tali | Khali | Theka | Vibhag | Kayda | Rela | Palta | Paran | Chand | Chikari | Lom-vilom | Bol
—Cultural & historical—
Nada Brahma | Ganda Bandhan | Durbar | Mughal | Ethnopimp | Sanskrit | Braj Bhasha | Dhwani | Desi | Margi | Samay | Riyaz | Prahar | Sandhiprakash | Ahata | Anahata | Ragmala | Janya | Graha Bheda | Jatigaan | Varna | Shastra | Melakarta | Lakshanagrantha | Natyashastra | Ragamalika | Raganga | Ragini | Bamayna | Baithak | Akaar | Dhyana | Sadhana
• All Tags & Classifiers •
• Get started with learning raga! •
Share these ragas! My site is 100% reliant on organic visitors (and none of your donations go to ad agencies…) – share this with fellow sonic searchers!
[Join my PATREON!]
Like everything on my site, the Raga Index will always remain open-access & ad-free: however, anti-corporate musicology doesn’t pay the bills! I put as much into these resources as time and finances allow – so, to hasten the project’s expansion, you can:
• Support the Raga Index! •
—Riyaz-focused notations & bandish—
—Resurrecting rare and ancient ragas—
—Further melodic & geometric analysis—
—Engaging with Hindustani performers—
—Ensuring that high-quality raga knowledge will remain open to all, at no cost: free from commercial motive!—
—Hindustani Raga Index—
An open-ended project seeking to bring North Indian raga closer to all who approach with open ears. Combines direct input from dozens of leading Hindustani artists with in-depth insights from music history, global theory, performance practice, cognitive science, and much more besides!
–Megalist (365+ ragas)–
• Search: Find your new favourite •
• Tags: Classifying the ragascape •
• Glossary: Raga jargon demystified •
• Murchanas: Swara-set rotations •
• Thaat: Bhatkhande’s base scales •
• Ragatable: Analytical connections •
• Tanpuras: Divine overtonal drones •
• Quotes: Musings from raga artists •
• Talas: Hindustani rhythm cycles •
• Instruments: Singing sculptures •
Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pa | Dha | Ni
[Random Raga]
—Search the Raga Index—
• Feedback / Contact •
George Howlett is a London-based musician, writer, and teacher (guitars, sitar, tabla, & santoor). Above all I seek to enthuse fellow sonic searchers, interconnecting fresh vibrations with the voices, cultures, and passions behind them. See Homepage for more, and hit me up for Lessons!
• Projects & articles: full list •
[Join the Patreon!]
everything 100% ad-free and open-access