Doing Philosophy/Philosophy Quick Reference

This is a Quick Reference Guide for Intermediate Philosophy Students — compact, structured, and designed for learners who already know the basics and need a sharper tool for study, dialogue, or essay-writing.^[1] As you become more proficient, please study more complete, accurate, and nuanced descriptions of these concepts. Terms are linked to more complete definitions. This more complete list of philosophical concepts may also be helpful.

• Metaphysics – Nature of reality (being, time, causation).
• Epistemology – Nature of knowledge (justification, truth, skepticism).
• Ethics – Morality (right action, virtue, obligation).
• Logic – Valid reasoning, argument structure.
• Political Philosophy – Justice, rights, governance.
• Aesthetics – Beauty, art, taste.
• Philosophy of Mind – Consciousness, identity, free will.
• Philosophy of Science – Methods, demarcation, realism vs. anti-realism.

• Knowledge (JTB Model) – Justified True Belief + (responses to Gettier problems).
• Foundationalism – Beliefs rest on basic, self-evident truths.
• Coherentism – Beliefs justified by fitting into a web of beliefs.
• Reliabilism – Justification comes from reliable cognitive processes.
• Skepticism – Doubt about the possibility of certain knowledge.
• A priori vs. A posteriori – Independent of vs. based on experience.
• Analytic vs. Synthetic – True by definition vs. true by how the world is.

• Deductive Argument – If premises are true, conclusion must be true.
• Inductive Argument – Probabilistic generalization.
• Abductive Reasoning – Inference to the best explanation.
• Validity – Structure guarantees conclusion follows from premises.
• Soundness – Valid + premises actually true.
• Common Fallacies – Ad hominem, straw man, false dilemma, slippery slope, circular reasoning, appeal to authority.

• Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill) – Maximize happiness for the most.
• Deontology (Kant) – Duties and rules, categorical imperative.
• Virtue Ethics (Aristotle) – Cultivate moral character.
• Contractarianism (Hobbes, Rawls) – Morality from social agreement.
• Care Ethics – Moral importance of relationships, empathy.
• Moral Relativism – Morality depends on culture/context.
• Moral Realism vs. Anti-realism – Are moral facts objective?

• Dualism (Descartes) – Mind and body are distinct.
• Physicalism – Everything is physical; mind emerges from brain.
• Functionalism – Mental states defined by their roles, not substance.
• Personal Identity – Memory theory (Locke), psychological continuity, bodily continuity.
• Free Will:
  • Determinism – All events caused.
  • Libertarianism – Free choices exist.
  • Compatibilism – Freedom and determinism can coexist.

• Social Contract – Authority comes from agreement among people.
• Rawls’ Principles – Justice as fairness; veil of ignorance.
• Nozick – Libertarian minimal state.
• Marxism – Critique of capitalism, class struggle.
• Anarchism – Questioning legitimacy of the state.

• Demarcation Problem – Distinguishing science from pseudoscience.
• Falsifiability (Popper) – Scientific claims must be testable.
• Paradigm Shifts (Kuhn) – Science advances through revolutions.
• Realism vs. Instrumentalism – Do theories describe reality or just predict phenomena?

• Problem of Evil – Reconciling God with suffering.
• Mind–Body Problem – How can physical processes produce consciousness?
• Free Will vs. Determinism – Are we in control of our choices?
• Trolley Problem – Ethical thought experiment on consequences vs. duties.
• Infinite Regress – Chains of justification or causation with no foundation.
• Absurdity (Camus) – Tension between human search for meaning and indifferent universe.

• Socratic Method – Clarify through questioning.
• Phenomenology (Husserl, Heidegger) – Describing lived experience.
• Hermeneutics (Gadamer, Ricoeur) – Interpretation of texts and meaning.
• Deconstruction (Derrida) – Exposing hidden assumptions in texts.
• Pragmatism (Peirce, James, Dewey) – Truth as what works in practice.

• Ontology – The study of being.
• Epistemic Justification – Reasons supporting belief.
• Teleology – Purpose-driven explanations.
• Phenomenon/Noumenon – Kant’s distinction: what appears vs. reality in itself.
• Qualia – Subjective experiences (e.g., “what red looks like to me”).
• Infinite regress – Explanations that require endless further explanation.
• Utilitarian calculus – Measuring costs and benefits of actions.

• Clarify terms – Many disputes are verbal.
• Ask good questions – What follows? What are the assumptions?
• Spot fallacies – Look for weak reasoning.
• Compare perspectives – Ask how different theories would handle the same problem.
• Relate to life – Philosophy matters when applied to real choices.

1. ↑ ChatGPT generated this responding to the prompt: “Create a quick reference suitable for use by intermediate level philosophy students.”